zinc group element

▪ chemistry

Introduction

 any of the three metals that comprise Group 12 (IIb) of the periodic table of elements—namely, zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg). (See Figure—>.) They have properties in common, but they also differ in significant respects. All three are metals with a silvery-white appearance and relatively low melting points and boiling points; mercury is the only common metal that is liquid at room temperature, and its boiling point is lower than that of any other metal.

      The three elements are found in different proportions in the Earth's crust: it has been estimated that zinc is present to the extent of 80 parts per million (compared with 70 for copper and 16 for lead). The estimate for cadmium is only 0.15; commercially, it is always found associated with zinc or zinc–lead ores and is produced only as a by-product of zinc and lead smelting. The proportion of mercury in the Earth's crust is estimated at 0.08 parts per million. All important mercury deposits consist of mercuric sulfide, known as the mineral cinnabar.

Comparative properties of the group

       Some Properties of the Zinc Group Elements, TableSome properties of the zinc group elements are listed in the following Table (Some Properties of the Zinc Group Elements, Table).

Chemical reactivity

      All three elements can lose the two electrons in the outermost shell to form dipositive ions, M²⁺ (in which M represents a generalized metal element), thereby exposing the next innermost shell with a stable configuration in each case of 18 electrons. Ordinary chemical reactions cannot supply enough energy to remove more than two electrons and thus increase the oxidation state above +2, though any number of electrons can be removed under conditions that can provide the necessary energy, such as intense heat or powerful electric or magnetic fields. All three elements tend to use the two outer electrons for covalent bonding; (covalent bond) this tendency is most marked in the case of mercury, less so in that of zinc, and least with cadmium.

      Zinc exhibits only the +2 oxidation state. It can give up two electrons to form an electrovalent compound; e.g., zinc carbonate ZnCO₃. It may also share those electrons, as in zinc chloride, ZnCl₂, a compound in which the bonds are partly ionic and partly covalent. Dipositive mercury also forms covalent bonds in mercuric chloride, HgCl₂.

      Cadmium compounds are mainly ionic, but cadmium also forms complex ions with ligands (atoms, ions, or molecules that donate electrons to a central metal ion); e.g., the complex ion with ammonia NH₃, having the formula [Cd(NH₃)₄]²⁺, or with the cyanide ion, the formula [Cd(CN)₄]²⁻. Differing from zinc and mercury, cadmium can form the complex ions represented by the formulas [CdCl₃]⁻ and [CdCl₄]²⁻ in solution.

      Mercury in its +2 and +1 oxidation states forms the ions Hg²⁺ and [Hg₂]²⁺, respectively. In the latter, two electrons are shared in a covalent bond between the two metal atoms. The [Hg₂]²⁺ ion shows little tendency to form complexes, whereas the Hg²⁺ ion does form them. In contrast to compounds of mercury in the +2 state, which are usually covalent, all the common salts of mercury in the +1 state are ionic, and the soluble compounds—e.g., mercurous nitrate, Hg₂(NO₃)₂—show normal properties of ionic compounds, such as ease of dissociation or breakup into separate ions in solution.

      Mercury is exceptional in that, unlike zinc or cadmium, it does not react easily with oxygen on heating, and mercuric oxide does not show the acid property of forming salts (mercurates), whereas zinc oxide does this readily. Mercury is again anomalous in that it does not produce hydrogen, as do zinc and cadmium, upon treatment with dilute acids. With fairly concentrated nitric acid, zinc and cadmium evolve oxides of nitrogen and form zinc or cadmium nitrates; mercury gives both mercuric nitrate, Hg(NO₃)₂, and mercurous nitrate, Hg₂(NO₃)₂. A further characteristic of mercury that is uncommon among metals is its readiness to form stable compounds containing a mercury–carbon bond or a mercury–nitrogen bond. As a result, mercury forms a wide variety of organic compounds (compounds that always contain carbon, usually also hydrogen, and often one or more of the elements oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur). On the whole, therefore, the zinc group elements do not show a smooth gradation of properties, mainly because of the number of anomalous properties of mercury, which in many respects shows a greater similarity to silver than to zinc and cadmium.

Analysis

      The classical chemical methods of analysis are now rarely employed except for standardization. When this is required, the methods most commonly employed are the titration of zinc (i.e., addition of a measured volume of a standardized solution of ferrocyanide ion until the exact amount necessary for complete reaction has been added), the conversion of cadmium to cadmium sulfide, which is isolated and weighed, and the colorimetric estimation of mercury (comparison of the intensity of the colour produced by reaction with the substance dithizone with that produced by the same treatment of known amounts of mercury). In daily practice, colorimetry and polarography (a method based on the response of electric current to a steadily increasing electromotive force applied to a solution) are widely used but are being rapidly replaced by other techniques of greater rapidity, simplicity, or accuracy. These modern procedures include atomic absorption spectroscopy (based on the absorption of light of certain wavelengths by atoms present in a flame) and X-ray fluorescence (based on the emission of radiation of characteristic wavelengths when X rays impinge on a sample).

Toxicity (poison) of the elements

      The toxicity of the metals increases sharply in the order zinc, cadmium, mercury. The toxicity of zinc is low. In drinking water zinc can be detected by taste only when it reaches a concentration of 15 parts per million (ppm); water containing 40 parts per million zinc has a definite metallic taste. Vomiting is induced when the zinc content exceeds 800 parts per million. Cases of fatal poisoning have resulted through the ingestion of zinc chloride or sulfide, but these are rare. Both zinc and zinc salts are well tolerated by the human skin. Excessive inhalation of zinc compounds can cause such toxic manifestations as fever, excessive salivation, and a cough that may cause vomiting; but the effects are not permanent.

      Compared with those of zinc, the toxic hazards of cadmium are quite high. It is soluble in the organic acids found in food and forms salts that are converted into cadmium chloride by the gastric juices. Even small quantities can cause poisoning, with the symptoms of increased salivation, persistent vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. Fatal cases have been reported. Cadmium has its most serious effect as a respiratory poison: a number of fatalities have resulted from breathing the fumes or dusts that arise when cadmium is heated. Symptoms are difficult or laboured breathing, a severe cough, and violent gastrointestinal disturbance.

      Mercury and its compounds are highly toxic. They can be handled safely, but stringent precautions must be taken to prevent absorption by inhalation, by ingestion, and through the skin. The main result of acute poisoning is damage to kidneys.

      Numerous cases of poisoning through the industrial use of inorganic mercury compounds have been known. In the 19th century the use of mercuric nitrate in the hat industry to carrot, or lay, the felt caused tremors and a physical disturbance that gave rise to the phrase “as mad as a hatter” and consequently was banned. Organic compounds of mercury, most notably the compounds of the aryl and alkyl families, were once widely used, primarily as fungicides in seeds, paint, and paper. The toxicity of such compounds is different. The behaviour of aryl salts—as for example phenylmercuric acetate—in the body is similar to that of inorganic compounds. Both groups if ingested cause vomiting, colic, and diarrhea, and both are skin irritants. No fatal case of aryl salt poisoning has been reported; however, exposure to alkyl salts has caused a number of deaths. The main target seems to be the central nervous system, and alkyl salts are capable of penetrating brain cells. They are only slowly excreted. Concern has been expressed at an apparent buildup of mercury in tuna, swordfish, and salmon, and many countries have set limits on the amounts allowable in edible fish. The use of mercurial fungicides and pesticides and the discharge of mercury-containing industrial wastes were prohibited in the United States in the early 1970s because they were found to cause such contamination.

Stephen William Kenneth Morgan

Additional Reading

A general view of the principles underlying the extraction of zinc, cadmium, and mercury is given in Donald M. Liddell (ed.), Handbook of Nonferrous Metallurgy, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1945). The toxicity of the three metals is dealt with in Ethel Browning, Toxicity of Industrial Metals, 2nd ed. (1969). A useful summary of the behaviour of mercury is found in Eric N. Simons, Guide to Uncommon Metals (1967). More information on these three metals is provided in C.A. McAuliffe (ed.), The Chemistry of Mercury (1977); Leonard J. Goldwater, Mercury: A History of Quicksilver (1972); D.M. Chizhikov, Cadmium (1966; originally published in Russian, 1962); Marie Farnsworth, Cadmium Chemicals (1980); S.W.K. Morgan, Zinc and Its Alloys and Compounds (1985); Helmut Sigel and Astrid Sigel, Zinc and Its Role in Biology and Nutrition (1983); and Marie Farnsworth, Charles H. Kline, and J.G. Noltes, Zinc Chemicals (1973). Stephen William Kenneth Morgan Ed.

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