Turkmen literature

      the body of written works produced by the Turkmen people of Central Asia.

      Reconstructing a literary history of the Turkmen is extremely difficult. They did not possess their own educational or literary institutions but instead lived at various times under the rule of the Khivans, Bukharans, and Persians, none of whom made significant efforts to preserve the works of Turkmen writers. Biographical information about early Turkmen authors is mostly of a legendary nature and was passed down orally. Much of what is known comes from the literature itself, found in later and often fragmentary manuscripts or in the oral tradition of the bakhshi (bards).

      During the 17th and 18th centuries, following the migration of the Turkmen into Khwārezm (in present-day Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), what is regarded as classical Turkmen literature came into being. The Uzbek khan Shīr Ghāzī patronized the writing of the Turkmen poet ʿAndalīb, who used the local form of the Chagatai language. ʿAndalīb wrote poetic imitations (mukhammas) of Chagatai ghazals by the Turkish poet ʿAlī Shīr Navāʾī (Navāʾī, ʿAlī Shīr). He also wrote three narrative poems that use a Turkmen epic form, the destān (dessan): Yusup-Zuleikhā, based on a traditional Islamic theme; Oghuznāme, which describes the legendary protohistory of the Turkmen and is based on the universal history Jāmīʿ al-tawārīkh (“Collector of Chronicles”) of the Persian statesman Rashīd al-Dīn (Rashīd ad-Dīn); and Nesīmī, based on the life and writings of the medieval Turkish mystical poet Imād al-Dīn Nesīmī (Seyid İmadeddin Nesimi (Nesimi, Seyid İmadeddin)). Though written in Chagatai rather than Turkmen, these writings display an unprecedented awareness of Turkmen cultural heritage. The influence of classical Azerbaijani poetic forms is also present throughout ʿAndalīb's verse.

      These early works, which were followed by the weakening of the Persian, Khivan, and Bukharan states during the second half of the 18th century, encouraged the Turkmen to develop a national literature. Turkmen literature is unique in that, unlike other written Turkic literatures of medieval and modern times, it did not adopt the majority of the features of the Persianate literary tradition. It instead borrowed heavily from Turkmen oral tradition and, in the case of 18th-century Turkmen poetry, Chagatai verse.

      Dövletmemmed Āzādī studied in Khiva and wrote two masnawis (poems consisting of a series of rhyming couplets) in the Chagatai language, both of them didactic and orthodox Sunni: Waʿẓ-i āzād (1753; “The Sermon of the Free”) and Behishtnāme (1756; “The Book of Paradise”). But it was Makhtumquli Fïrāghī (Maghdïmgïlï), Āzādī's son and the most important figure in Turkmen literature, who began to write in a form of the Turkmen language and who set Turkmen writing on the track it would travel throughout the rest of the 18th century and into the 19th.

      Makhtumquli is thought to have written about 800 poems, although many may be apocryphal. The majority of them are goshgï (folk songs), a syllabic verse form typically divided into quatrains. Others are highly personal ghazals that incorporate Sufi elements. No long poems by Makhtumquli have survived. His language shows the influence of classical Azerbaijani, likely drawn from poetry in that language. In the 19th century, Makhtumquli's verses circulated throughout Central Asia orally rather than in the written form in which he composed them; this mode of transmission enabled them to gain wide popularity among many ethnic groups, including Kurds, Tajiks, and Karakalpaks.

      Makhtumquli's contemporaries included Abdulnazar Shahbende and Gurbanali Maghrupī. Shahbende, who studied in Khiva, was also a musician who performed his own works. He was famous for his destāns Gul-Bulbul; Shahbehrām, taken from classical Persian themes; and Khojamberdi Khan, which deals with the Turkmen response to Āghā Moḥammad Khān, the founder of Iran's Qājār dynasty. Maghrupī was also a writer of destāns, including Yusup-Akhmad and Ali Bek-Boli Bek, which had great influence on the Uzbek oral epic of the 19th century. His Dövletler is also a destān; it describes a revolt carried out in 1770 against the Khivan khan. The realistic approach taken by Maghrupī in Khojamberdi Khan and Dövletler had no parallel in contemporary Chagatai and Persian literature.

      Among the subsequent generation of 19th-century Turkmen writers were Murat Talibī, who wrote the quasi-autobiographical destān Talibī va Sakhïbjemāl, and Seyitnazar Seydī, who wrote in a lyric style that is almost folkloric. Mollanepes—famed for his destān Zöhre-Tahir, which takes a medieval folkloric theme—and Kemine, a sharp social critic, continued the styles and themes of the 18th century into the 19th.

      After the Russian conquest of the Turkmen regions of Khwārezm and Bukhara in the late 19th century, traditional writing by Turkmen continued, but the Turkmen classics gradually became the property of the bakhshis, who performed them to the accompaniment of the dutār (lute) and ghidjak (spike fiddle). Their performances commemorated the great era of Turkmen poetic creativity.

      During the Soviet era (1925–91), when Turkmenistan was a constituent (union) republic of the U.S.S.R., and after Turkmenistan's independence, Makhtumquli's writings remained highly popular. Berdi Kerbabayev was among the most prominent Turkmen writers of the 20th century; he became best known for his novel Aygïtlï ädim (1940; “The Decisive Step”).

Walter Feldman

Additional Reading

Walter Feldman, “Interpreting the Poetry of Mäkhtumquli,” in Jo-Ann Gross (ed.), Muslims in Central Asia (1992), pp. 167–189, places Makhtumquli's poetry within the broader history of Turkmen literature.

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