Baltic religion

Ancient beliefs and practices of the Balts of Eastern Europe.

They are believed to give evidence of a common source with Vedic and Iranian religion. The most important Baltic divinities were sky gods: Dievs (the sky), Perkons (the thunderer), Saule (sun goddess), and Meness (moon god). A forest divinity, the Mother of the Forest, was common to all Baltic peoples and was differentiated into goddesses that personified various aspects of nature. Destiny or luck was personified as the goddess Laima, who determined a person's fate at the moment of birth. The dead were thought to revisit the world as good or evil spirits; evil was also done by the devil, Velns, and by a werewolf-like creature known as Vilkacis or Vilkatas. The structure of the world, with the world tree at its center, and the enmity between Saule and Meness are important themes. Festivals marked the summer solstice, the harvest, marriages, and funerals. Worship was conducted at holy groves and small hills; excavations have also revealed circular wooden temples.

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Introduction

      religious beliefs and practices of the Balts (Balt), ancient inhabitants of the Baltic region of eastern Europe who spoke languages belonging to the Baltic family of languages.

The study of Baltic religion

Problems

      The study of Baltic religion has developed as an offshoot of the study of Baltic languages—Old Prussian, Latvian, and Lithuanian (see Baltic languages). These form a separate group—the oldest one—of the Indo-European languages, which are closely related to the ancient Indian language Sanskrit.

      Although the study of Baltic languages is important in the study of Indo-European linguistics, the study of Baltic religion has not assumed a similar level of importance in the study of comparative religion. In 1875 it was shown that the religious concepts of the Balts, when compared with those of other European peoples, are found to be marked by many older features that agree with Vedic (Vedic religion) (ancient Indian) and Iranian (Iranian religion) ideas. At least one scholarly reconstruction of ancient Indo-European religion depended mainly on Baltic religious traditions. International research in Baltic religion has, however, been greatly hindered by the fact that the languages of these small Baltic countries (Latvia and Lithuania) are but little known and because Baltic scholars have been able to work in this field only relatively recently. Thus, a comprehensive review of Baltic religion is possible only on the express understanding that many findings are only hypothetical and require further research. But, as will be seen below, even under these circumstances Baltic religious concepts help greatly in understanding the formation and structure of the oldest phases of Indo-European religion.

Sources of data

      There are four main sources of data, each with its own relevance and each requiring its own specific methodology: archaeological material, historical documents, linguistics, including toponymy (the study of the place-names of a region or language), and folklore. Since the last half of the 19th century, archaeological material has furnished much information about burial and sacrificial rites. The remains of sacred buildings have also been found. This material is of special interest in that it corroborates old religious traditions preserved by folklore, which gives added reliability to both of these sources. But archaeological material can at best furnish only a partial and incomplete picture, even though it is meaningful in some respects. Historical documents, already partially compiled and published, could be expected to yield much more information. Their value, however, is made problematic by the fact that all such documents were written by foreigners, mainly Germans (Germanic peoples) who, in the course of their centuries-long eastward expansion, subjugated the Baltic peoples and exterminated some of them. Since the conquerors did not understand the Baltic languages, many documents contain the names of gods and other divinities that are without basis in fact. Baltic religion was viewed dogmatically and negatively in the light of Christian (Christianity) interpretations. Linguistic source material, also compiled by foreigners, shows fewer signs of interpretation, especially in regard to toponymy. Baltic folklore—one of the most extensive folklores of all European peoples—contains the greatest amount of material, especially in the form of dainas (short folk songs of four lines each) and folktales. Folklore is especially valuable because it contains many concepts that elsewhere have been lost under the influence of Christianity. Old religious beliefs have persisted because the Germans, after conquering the Baltic lands in the 13th and 14th centuries, made practically no attempt at Christianization and contented themselves with only economic gains. The positive result of this policy is the preservation of old traditions and religious beliefs; some researchers have also noted the similarity between the metrical structure of the dainas and that of the Old Indian short verses in the Rigveda (a Hindu sacred scripture).

      The student of Baltic religion still encounters two difficulties. First, as has been noted, since written documents were established in Christian times, Christian influences in them are inescapable. Such influences cause difficulties and make a critical approach mandatory. Second, after the establishment of political independence of the Baltic countries following World War I, there arose a certain national romanticism that has attempted to identify Baltic culture with that of the ancient Indo-Europeans. Thus, an uncritical approach has led even to the introduction of “gods” that are actually only etymological derivations from the names of Christian saints. On the other hand, those western European scholars who are unfamiliar with the special historical and social circumstances of the Balts have assumed Baltic folklore to be on a level with the thoroughly Christianized western European folklore and thus have underestimated its importance.

Mythology

Cosmology

      In the traditions of the Baltic peoples, there are no epic myths about the creation of the world and its structure. This fact is explained by the historical and social circumstances mentioned above, which either have hindered the formation of these types of myths or, more likely, have simply made their preservation impossible. Furthermore, there has been no significant research concerning Baltic myths and their interrelationships. Fragmentary evidence found exclusively in folklore indicates only two complexes of ideas with any certainty: the first concerns the structure of the world, the second the enmity between Saule (“Sun”) and Mēness (Latvian; Lithuanian Mėnulis; “Moon”).

      There is disagreement as to whether the Balts pictured the world as consisting of two regions or of three. The two-region hypothesis seems to be more plausible and is supported by a dualism found frequently in the dainas: šī saule (literally “this sun”) and viņa saule (literally “the other sun”). The metaphor šī saule symbolizes ordinary everyday human life, while viņa saule indicates the invisible world where the sun goes at night, which is also the abode of the dead.

      The evidence does not show conclusively whether this world is located in the direction of the setting sun or under the earth, beneath which the sun travels back to the east. The sky is considered to be a mountain, sometimes of stone, and is the residence of the sky gods. Saule rides over the sky in a chariot drawn by a varying number of horses, Mēness rides to be married, and Pērkons (Latvian; Lithuanian Perkūnas; “Thunderer”) makes weapons and jewelry in the sky.

      The concept that Saule, unseen during the night, makes her way from west to east under the earth so that she can start her course anew over the sky mountain is also familiar. It is also possible to see here the ancient idea of a world ocean on which the earth, as a round plate, swims, an idea that has disappeared under the influence of Christianity.

      The notion of a sun tree, or world tree, is one of the most important concepts regarding the cosmos. This tree grows at the edge of the path of Saule, and the setting sun (Saule) hangs her belt on the tree in preparation for rest. It is usually considered to be an oak but is also described as a linden or some other kind of tree. The tree is said to be located in the middle of the world ocean or generally to the west.

The gods

Dievs

      The Baltic words Latvian dievs, Lithuanian dievas, and Old Prussian deivas are etymologically related to the Indo-European deios; among others, the Greek Zeus is derived from the same root. It originally meant the physical sky (High God), but already in Old Indian and other religions the sky became personified as an anthropomorphic deity. Dievs, the pre-Christian Baltic name for God, was used by Christian missionaries (and still is) to denote the Christian God. The etymology of the word indicates that the Balts preserved its oldest forms, which is also true of the functions and attributes of the personified Baltic sky god Dievs, who lives on his farmstead on the sky mountain but does not participate in the work of the farm. Importantly, Dievs is a bridegroom who rides together with the other gods to a sky wedding in which his bride is Saule. Dievs' family is a later development; in the family, Dieva dēli (“God's Sons”) play the primary role. Thus Dievs is pictured as the father of a family of sky gods. Besides such anthropomorphic characteristics, another characteristic that gives Dievs a universal significance may be observed: he appears as the creator of order in the world on the one hand, and as the judge and guardian of moral law on the other. From time to time he leaves the sky mountain and actively takes part in the everyday life of the farmers below. His participation in various yearly festivals is vividly described. In spite of this, the Baltic Dievs is similar to the Old Indian Dyaus, the Greek Zeus, and other personifications of the sky. Such divinities have a tendency, in comparison with other gods of their religions, to recede into a secondary role.

Pērkons

      In Baltic, as in other Indo-European religions, there is, in addition to Dievs, the Thunderer (Latvian Pērkons, Lithuanian Perkūnas) with quite specific functions. Pērkons is described in the oldest chronicles and in poetic and epic folklore, but, though he is a primary divinity, there is no reason to believe that he is the main god. His abode is in the sky, and, like Dievs, he sometimes descends from the sky mountain. He has two main characteristics. First, he is a mighty warrior, metaphorically described as the sky smith, and the scourge of evil. His role as adversary of the Devil and other evil spirits is of secondary importance and has been formed to a great extent under the influence of Christian syncretism. Second, he is a fertility god, and he controls the rain, an important event in the life of farmers. Various sacrifices were made to him in periods of drought as well as in times of sickness and plague. No other god occupied a place of such importance at the farmer's table during festivals, especially in the fall at harvest time. Like the other sky gods, he also has a family. Even though his daughters are mentioned occasionally, originally he had only sons, and myths depicting sky weddings portray his role vividly, as a bridegroom and as the father in his sons' weddings.

Saule

      The Sun (sun worship), Saule, occupies the central place in the pantheon of Baltic gods. The divinity of the sun has been recognized throughout the world, and the Balts were no exception. The Baltic description of Saule is so complete and specific that it was one of the first to be studied by scholars. Of greatest importance is the similarity in both functions and attributes of Saule and the ancient Indian god Sūrya (Surya). Similarities between the two deities are so great that, were not the two peoples separated by several thousand miles and several millennia, direct contact between them would be indicated instead of only a common origin.

      The representation of Saule is dualistic in that she is depicted as a mother on one hand, and a daughter on the other. Her attributes are described according to the role she plays. As a daughter she is mentioned only when she is a bride to the other sky gods. But as her daughters frequently are in the same role, it is difficult to differentiate between them. As a mother, however, she is depicted much more extensively and completely. Her farmstead on the sky mountain borders that of Dievs, and both Dieva dēli and Saules meitas (“Daughters of the Sun”) play and work together. Sometimes Dievs and Saule become enraged at each other because of their respective children, as, for example, when Dieva dēli break the rings of Saules meitas or when Saules meitas shatter the swords of Dieva dēli. Their enmity lasts three days, which some scholars explain through natural phenomena; i.e., the three days before the new moon when Dievs, a substitute for the moon, is not visible.

      That Saule, richly described in mythology, also had a cult devoted to her is suggested by the many hymns in her honour. They contain either expressions of thanks for her bounty or prayers seeking her aid, not only in relation to agriculture but to life in general. In agriculture Saule is a sanctifier of the fertility of the fields; in the life of the individual she is a typical sky goddess, interfering in her omniscience. She has human moral characteristics and punishes the immoral and aids the suffering. Though the question of where Saule's places of worship were located is not solved, the occasions for rituals pertaining to Saule have been definitely established, the most important of which was the summer solstice. Besides song, recitative, and dance, a central place in the ceremonies was occupied by a ritual meal, at which cheese and a drink brewed with honey (later beer) were consumed.

Mēness

      The Moon (moon worship), Mēness, also belongs to the sky pantheon. Detailed analysis only recently has shown that he has a role as a war god in Baltic religion. Such a role is indicated not only by his dress and accoutrements but especially by his weapons and expressions used in times of war. The influence of syncretism, however, has erased the outlines of his characteristics so far as to make a description of his role and any cult he may have had very difficult. The sky wedding myths furnish a somewhat more complete picture in which he is represented as a conflict-creating rival suitor of Auseklis (“Morning Star”).

      Auseklis, his sons, Dieva dēli, and Saules meitas form a separate group of divinities. Although they are mentioned in the sky myths, they have remained only as personifications of natural phenomena, characterized by the most beautiful metaphors. It is notable that a common characteristic of the sky gods, and, in fact, of all Baltic divinities, is the express tendency for each to have a family.

      All of the divinities mentioned above are closely associated with horses (horse): they either ride or are drawn in chariots across the sky mountain and arrive on earth in the same fashion. The number of horses is indeterminate but usually varies from two to five or more. This trait also confirms the close ties between Baltic and Indo-Iranian religions.

      Although males form the majority of the sky gods, the chthonic (underworld) divinities are mostly female. In both Latvian and Lithuanian religions the earth is personified and called Earth Mother (Latvian Zemes māte, Lithuanian emyna). But the Lithuanians also have Earth Master (emėpatis). Latvians in general refer to mothers, Lithuanians to masters. Zemes māte is the only deity in addition to Dievs who is originally responsible for human welfare. Based on the writings of the Roman historian Tacitus, it has been asserted that she is the mother of the other gods, but there is no support for this view in other sources. Under the influence of Christian–pagan syncretism, the Virgin Mary has assumed some of the functions of Zemes māte. Furthermore, some of these functions have been acquired and differentiated by various other later divinities, who, however, have not lost their original chthonic character. Thus, a deity of the dead has developed from Zemes māte, called in Latvian Smilšu māte (“Mother of the Sands”), Kapu māte (“Mother of the Graves”), and Veļu māte (“Mother of the Ghosts”). Libations and sacrifices were offered to Zemes māte. Such rituals were also performed in connection with the other divinities at a later stage of development. The fertility of the fields is also guaranteed by Jumis, who is symbolized by a double head of grain, and by various mothers, such as Lauka māte (“Mother of the Fields”), Linu māte (“Mother of the Flax”), and Mieža māte (“Mother of the Barley”).

Forest and agricultural deities

      A forest divinity, common to all Baltic peoples, is called in Latvian Meža māte and in Lithuanian Medeinė (“Mother of the Forest”). She again has been further differentiated into other divinities, or rather she was given metaphorical appellations with no mythological significance, such as Krūmu māte (“Mother of the Bushes”), Lazdu māte (“Mother of the Hazels”), Lapu māte (“Mother of the Leaves”), Ziedu māte (“Mother of the Blossoms”), and even Sēņu māte (“Mother of the Mushrooms”). Forest animals are ruled by the Lithuanian Žvėrinė opposed to the Latvian Meža māte.

      The safety and welfare of the farmer's house is cared for by the Latvian Mājas gars (“Spirit of the House”; Lithuanian Kaukas), which lives in the hearth. Similarly, other farm buildings have their own patrons—Latvian Pirts māte (“Mother of the Bathhouse”) and Rijas māte (“Mother of the Threshing House”); Lithuanian Gabjauja.

      Because natural (animism) phenomena and processes have often been raised to the level of divinities, there are a large number of beautifully described lesser mythological beings whose functions are either very limited or completely denoted by their names. Water deities are Latvian Jūras māte (“Mother of the Sea”), Ūdens māte (“Mother of the Waters”), Upes māte (“Mother of the Rivers”), and Bangu māte (“Mother of the Waves”; Lithuanian Bangpūtys), while atmospheric deities are Latvian Vēja māte (“Mother of the Wind”), Lithuanian Vėjopatis (“Master of the Wind”), Latvian Lietus māte (“Mother of the Rain”), Miglas māte (“Mother of the Fog”), and Sniega māte (“Mother of the Snow”). Even greater is the number of those beings related to human activities, but only their names are still to be found, for example Miega māte (“Mother of Sleep”) and Tirgus māte (“Mother of the Market”).

Goddess of destiny

      Because of peculiarities of the source materials, it is difficult to determine whether the goddess of destiny, Laima (from the root word laime, meaning “happiness” and “luck”), originally had the same importance in Baltic religion as later, or whether her eminence is due to the specific historical circumstances of each of the Baltic peoples. In any case, a wide collection of material concerning Laima is available. The real ruler of human fate, she is mentioned frequently together with Dievs in connection with the process of creation. Although Laima determines a man's unchangeable destiny at the moment of his birth, he can still lead his life well or badly within the limits prescribed by her. She also determines the moment of a person's death, sometimes even arguing about it with Dievs.

The devil

      The Devil, Velns (Lithuanian Velnias), has a well-defined role, which is rarely documented so well in the folklore of other peoples. Besides the usual outer features, several characteristics are especially emphasized. Velns, for instance, is a stupid devil. In addition, the Balts are the only colonialized people in Europe who have preserved a large amount of folklore that in different variations and situations portrays the Devil as a German landlord. Another evil being is the Latvian Vilkacis, Lithuanian Vilkatas, who corresponds to the werewolf in the traditions of other peoples. The belief that the dead do not leave this world completely is the basis for both good and evil spirits. As good spirits the dead return to the living as invisible beings (Latvian velis, Lithuanian vėlė), but as evil ones they return as persecutors and misleaders (Latvian vadātājs, Lithuanian vaidilas).

Practices, cults, and institutions

Temples (temple) and other holy places

      Archaeological excavations in the 20th century have indicated the existence of temples made of wood. The only remains of these temples are postholes. Such temples were circular, approximately 15 feet (five metres) in diameter, in the centre of which a statue of a god may have been erected. At present, however, the existence of such temples must be regarded only as conjecture within the realm of probability. On the other hand, the existence of open-air holy places or sites of worship among the Balts is confirmed by both the earliest historical documents and folklore. Such places were holy groves, called alka in Lithuanian. Later the word came to mean any holy place or site of worship (Lithuanian alkvietė). Considerable research has shown that the usual sites were little hills, where the populace gathered and sacrificed during holy festivals, all of which supports the idea that wooden buildings could have been built at these sites.

      Other holy places were also recognized. The most important of these appear to be bathhouses (bath), whose function some researchers have compared to that of churches in Christianity. A large amount of evidence indicates that religious–magical rites, from birth ceremonies to funerals, were performed in such bathhouses. There are various opinions as to whether the so-called holy corner (heilige Hinterecke)—i.e., the dark corner of a peasant's house in which a deity or patron lives—belongs to pre-Christian concepts or not. On the other hand, various places in the house proper, such as the hearth and the doorstep, were considered to be abodes of spirits. In general, the more important work sites each had its own guardian spirit. Sacrifices were performed at each spot to assure successful completion of work. Because they supplied the farmstead with water, streams and rivers were also especially important.

Religious personages

      There is no reliable information that the Balts had a priestly class, let alone religious hierarchy. The 11th-century German historian Adam of Bremen, in describing conflicts between Christian missionaries and Latvians, said that “every house is filled with seers, augurers, and necromancers,” which indicates that the Balts had sacral persons, probably the patriarchs of large extended families or heads of clans. As even 18th-century church inspection records show, the Christian church had great difficulty in curbing their influence, especially within their clans. Their religious functions were twofold. First, they were responsible for the welfare and means of existence of the people through the performance of appropriate rites both at work sites and during the holy festivals. Second, they assured that the proper procedure would be followed in rituals connected with the important occasions of human life, such as birth, marriage, and death. In the syncretistic amalgam of Christianity and the religion of the Balts, those persons were called sorcerers (Zauberer) and, according to church records, were treated by the Balts with the same reverence as bishops were treated by Christians.

Sacred times

      Special rites evolved for the festivals of the summer solstice and the harvest, while other rites were used specifically for beginning various kinds of spring work. Such spring work included sending farm animals to pasture or horses to forage for the first time, plowing the first furrow, and starting the first spring planting. The birth of a child was especially noted; it usually took place in the bathhouse or some other quiet spot. Laima was responsible for both mother and child. One birth rite, called pirtīžas, was a special sacral meal in which only women took part. Marriage rites were quite extensive and corresponded closely to similar Old Indian ceremonies. fire and bread had special importance and were taken along to the house of the newly married couple. These rites persisted until quite late and were to be seen even at the end of the 19th century, though in many cases only as games. In this connection, fire in general occupied a central place in Baltic religion. Considered holy, it was worshiped, and sacrifices were offered to it.

      It seems unbelievable that even as late as 1377 and 1382, respectively, the Lithuanian king Algirdas and his brother Kęstutis could still be buried (death rite) according to the old traditions in a Christian Europe; dressed in silver and gold, they were burned in funeral pyres together with their best possessions, horses, hunting dogs, birds, and weapons. In spite of a ban by the church and subsequent persecution, this rite still persisted in the 15th century. The tenacious preservation of this ancient Indo-European ritual casts light on other features of Baltic religion. Chronicles relate that Lithuanians, after losing a battle, joyfully committed suicide; this was also true of the widows of soldiers killed in battle. Such voluntary immolation and the articles buried with the dead are evidence of a belief in life after death. It is said that at the funeral of a nobleman his companions threw lynx and bear claws into the fire to aid his climb up the mountain to God, an indication of Christian influence. Archaeological excavations have also yielded evidence of fire funeral rites: the bones of humans and animals, metal jewelry, and weapons found at the sites of the funeral pyres.

      In funeral rites several different phases are discernible during the period between death and burning. The deceased was laid out in his house for a longer or shorter period depending on his social position and the size of his estate. During this time a meal lasting several days was held for the deceased's relatives and friends. In the course of the festivities the participants conducted fights on horseback. Lamentations, leave-takings, and praises of the deceased, as well as wishes for a safe journey to the world of the dead, accompanied the corpse on the way to the funeral pyre. In spite of persecution by the church, the tradition of lamentation has lasted until modern times, though in a somewhat modified form. One of the peculiarities of Baltic funeral rites was their similarity to wedding ceremonies. The corpse and a partner selected from the living were dressed in elaborate wedding costumes, wedding songs were sung, and dancing took place. The basis of these ceremonies was the belief that the dead anticipate a new companion with the same joy as the living do a new in-law. The corpse's living partner was a symbolical substitute for the new comrade awaited by the dead.

      The use of living people to represent symbolically the companions of the dead in funerary practices suggests a dominant concept in Baltic religious thought, namely, that the boundary between the worlds of the dead (death) and the living was not real. The dead continued to live invisibly and were present at all important occasions. A place was set for them at the festival table and no one else might sit there. The extensive practice of feeding the dead was a consequence of the concept that the living were responsible for their welfare. Originally, their food must have been placed at the hearth. In later development, meals for the dead were also placed in other buildings, such as the threshing house or the bathhouse. Under the influence of Christianity, these living dead (Latvian velis, Lithuanian vėlė) have been confused with the Devil. A widespread view was that the souls of the dead dwell in the zalktis (Latvian; Lithuanian žaltys; “green snake”); thus special care was taken in its feeding. But the zalktis was also closely associated with fertility and sexual symbolism.

Conclusion

      Three main characteristics are discernible in Baltic religion. First, it is a typical astral religion in which the personified sky and main heavenly bodies play a major role. Saule, Mēness, Auseklis, and other gods have their own traits, frequently based on counterparts in nature. Although they are all related as one family, their roles within the family are varied. Depending on the cult or the plot of the myth, each divinity can assume various functions; a religious person, in general, does not experience such fluctuations as a contradiction. The second main characteristic is the personification of happiness, luck, and fate in Laima, who has assumed the role of a goddess of destiny. Because happiness is not an external, datable event, other gods besides Laima can help determine happiness in human life. The differentiation of Laima's functions has led to the establishment of some of her functions as independent entities with sometimes a poetic, sometimes a religious, meaning. The concept of destiny in Baltic religion has not, however, resulted in passive resignation or quietism but rather full exploitation of opportunities within the limits set by it. The third characteristic is the fertility cult. Here the primary force is the personified earth, called Mother, with all her functions and characteristics. It must be understood that the concept of a fertility cult entails a wider meaning, that of the assurance of human welfare in general.

      These three main typological traits hardly describe Baltic religion in all of its details and nuances. The religion can also be analyzed as having two strata: one, expressed in the above three features, can be called the stable surface layer; the second, visible below the first, contains only the outlines of undifferentiated, fluid mythological and religious beings that, because of their vague character, appear in various guises and have no stable role. They are the countless house, field, and wood spirits of the nature myths.

      Baltic religion, typologically, is an agricultural religion, and it is useless to speculate whether any other basis—such as nomadism, hunting, or fishing—can be found for it, because no information regarding such possibilities can be derived from any source. The amorphous agricultural clan defines the nature of Baltic religion. The farmer's gods are also farmers, though they live in great glory on their farmsteads on the sky mountain, from which they descend to help their lesser image—man. If necessary, Dievs, Saule, and Laima dress themselves in farmer's clothes and walk his fields with him. This religion does not recognize contemplation or mysticism but rather exhibits a healthy rationalism. Just as the gods are part of the cosmic order and are responsible for its maintenance, so humans obey it and become part of the divine rhythm of life set by the gods. In this way, humans cross the boundary that otherwise separates them from the world of the gods. Various specific historical circumstances explain why the Balts, in their language as well as in their religion, have preserved many elements undoubtedly belonging to the oldest phase of Indo-European religion.

Haralds Biezais

Additional Reading

Marija Gimbutas, The Balts (1963), pp. 179–204, gives a concise summary. Hans Bertuleit, “Das Religionswesen der alten Preussen mit litauisch–lettischen Parallelen,” Prussia, vol. 25 (1924), is still the only complete review of the Old Prussian religion. A critical examination of sources and research may be found in Haralds Biezais, Die Religionsquellen der baltischen Völker und die Ergebnisse der bisherigen Forschungen (1954). For a comprehensive collection of historic records of the Prussian, Lithuanian, and Lettish religion, see Wilhelm Mannhardt, Letto-preussische Götterlehre (1936, reissued 1971). Haralds Biezais, Die Hauptgöttinnen der alten Letten (1955), Die Gottesgestalt der lettischen Volksreligion (1961), Die himmlische Götterfamilie der alten Letten (1972), Lichtgott der alten Letten (1976), and Die baltische Ikonographie (1985), are devoted to central problems of Baltic religion, with exhaustive bibliographies.Haralds Biezais

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