Kazakh literature

      the body of literature, both oral and written, produced in the Kazakh language (Kazak language) by the Kazakh people of Central Asia.

      The Kazakh professional bard once preserved a large repertoire of centuries-old poetry. In the mid-19th century, for example, a bard might recite a number of works attributed to such 16th- and 17th-century bards as Er Shoban and even to such 15th-century bards as Shalkiz and Asan Qayghı. These works have no independent documentation, but they differ significantly in style from the poetry of the 19th century and therefore may include some features of early Kazakh poetry. In addition, some of the bards of earlier centuries—such as Dosmombet Zhıraw, who is reputed to have visited Constantinople (Istanbul) in the 16th century—were apparently literate. When Kazakh poetry began to be written down in the second half of the 19th century, these works—which included didactic termes, elegiac tolgaws, and epic zhırs—were rarely anonymous but instead were closely identified with the bards of the recent or more distant past who had composed them, although the circumstances of their creation remain obscure. Among the classic Kazakh epics known from the 19th century are Er Targhın and Alpamıs.

      By the 17th century, if not before, there had emerged two types of professional bards: the zhıraw and the aqın. These were primarily—though not exclusively—male professions. The zhıraw performed both the epic zhır and the didactic tolgaw and terme. Prior to the later 18th century, when Kazakhs began to lose their political autonomy, zhıraws were sometimes advisers to sultans and khans, which granted them high social status. The aqın was an oral poet who competed with other aqıns, usually of different clans, at weddings or other celebrations; these competitions centred on improvised songs (also called termes). While the zhır was the province of the zhıraw, the improvised song had stylistic variants that could be performed by either professional. Songs that praised a host, poetry, or a musical instrument, for example, were performed by both zhıraws and aqıns.

      Among the earliest Kazakh bards whose historical existence has been established is Buqar Zhıraw, an adviser to Ablay Khan, an 18th-century ruler of the Middle Horde. Other bards of the 18th and early 19th centuries are Shal Qulekeuwlı and Kötesh Rayımbekuwlı. During the 19th century several powerful bards, including Makhambet Istemisov and Shortanbay Qanauwlï, chose as their theme the diminution of the Kazakh way of life under increasing Russian pressure. Among the western Kazakhs of the Little Horde, this oral literary development reached its culmination in the second half of the 19th century and in the early 20th century in the works of Bazar Zhıraw, who combined the didacticism of the zhıraw with the quick wit of the improvising aqın. Bazar's poetry frequently treats such issues as the types of behaviour that are appropriate to different stages of life; the responsibilities of different social classes; the opposition of heroism and cowardice, of contentment and greed, and of wisely employed speech and idle boasting; the consequences of success and failure; and the nature of literary language, a perennial Kazakh theme. Bazar's long-lived contemporary Zhambul Zhalayev—who died in 1945, nearly a century after his birth—brought the oral aqın style into the Soviet era.

      Kazakh oral poetry of the 19th century displays breadth and diversity unmatched by any other Turkic oral literature. The Kazakh literary concept of humanity is founded upon a complex interdependency of the natural and the human realms that is expressed through numerous metaphors dealing with animal life and the forces of nature. A didactic element is important in these works, but its basis is essentially human; religious models may appear, but they are one model among others and do not claim the absolute priority that they do in the literatures of other Muslim Turkic peoples.

      In the middle of the 19th century, by which time the Russian conquest of Kazakhstan had largely been completed, two new factors began to influence Kazakh literature: members of the tribal aristocracy began to collect Kazakh folklore and oral literature, and, under the influence of the West, the first Kazakh written literature began to emerge. Chokan Valikanov, Ibray Altınsarın, and Abay Qunanbaev (Abay Ibrahim Kunanbay-ulï)—all of whom were writing during the mid- and late 19th century—mark the beginning of a new and essentially modern self-consciousness among the Kazakh intelligentsia. Valikanov was the first Kazakh to receive a full Russian education, and he was befriended by the Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky (Dostoyevsky, Fyodor). A descendant of high-ranking Kazakh nobility, Valikanov also intensively researched Kazakh antiquities and opposed the penetration of Kazakhstan by orthodox Islam via the Russian Tatars. The poetry of Abay marks the beginning of modern Kazakh literature. Abay was an aristocrat rather than a professional poet, and he learned Russian, Chagatai, and Persian. Early in his life he rejected Islamic civilization as a model for the Kazakhs; he instead urged them to blend their native literary traditions with Russian culture. In his poetic work, he combined Kazakh aqın verse with Russian models, especially the poetry of Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin (Pushkin, Aleksandr Sergeyevich) and Mikhail Lermontov (Lermontov, Mikhail). He translated Pushkin's poetry into Kazakh and integrated some of these translations into a musical performance style called enshi, which was more lyrical than that of the aqın or the zhıraw. Abay thus set Kazakh poetry in a new direction that proved very influential during the 20th century.

      After 1905, restrictions that had earlier been imposed by Russia on the publication of works in the Kazakh language were eased. Kazakh-language newspapers such as Ayqap, Alash, and Qazaq, each with a different cultural and political orientation, soon emerged. The generation of Kazakh writers active at that time, including Omar Qarashuwlï and Ahmed Bay Tursunov (Aqmet Baytūrsyn-ulï), were chiefly engaged in pedagogic and political activities. The poet Turmaghanbet Iztileyov was executed by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in 1939 for his translations of Persian classical literature into Kazakh.

      The outstanding figure of Kazakh literature during the Soviet era was Mukhtar Auez-ulï (Auezov). A graduate of universities in Russia and Uzbekistan, he became a successful scholar, publishing editions of Kazakh epic texts. He began writing fiction while still a student. By the 1920s he had begun to study Abay, who had been a major cultural influence on his own family. This study led to the historical novel Abaĭ (1945–47; Eng. trans. Abai). Epic in scope, it depicts the social environment from which Abay emerged. It is both a moving narrative and a unique document of Kazakh life during the period of the Russian conquest and thereafter, when the Kazakh people were faced with fundamental economic and cultural choices for which their traditional culture had not prepared them.

Walter Feldman

Additional Reading

Thomas G. Winner, The Oral Art and Literature of the Kazakhs of Russian Central Asia (1958), is a classic study.

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