ship construction

Introduction

      complex of activities concerned with the design and fabrication of all marine vehicles (ship).

      Ship construction today is a complicated compound of art and science. In the great days of sail, vessels were designed and built on the basis of practical experience; ship construction was predominantly a skill. With the rapid growth and development of the physical sciences, beginning in the early 19th century, it was inevitable that hydrokinetics (the study of fluids in motion), hydrostatics (the study of fluids at rest), and the science of materials and structures should augment the shipbuilder's skill. The consequence of this was a rapid increase in the size, speed, commercial value, and safety of ships.

The naval architect

      A naval architect asked to design a ship may receive his instructions in a form ranging from such simple requirements as “an oil tanker to carry 100,000 tons deadweight at 15 knots” to a fully detailed specification of precisely planned requirements. He is usually required to prepare a design for a vessel that must carry a certain weight of cargo (or number of passengers) at a specified speed with particular reference to trade requirements; high-density cargoes, such as machinery, require little hold capacity, while the reverse is true for low-density cargoes, such as grain.

      Deadweight is defined as weight of cargo plus fuel and consumable stores, and lightweight as the weight of the hull, including machinery and equipment. The designer must choose dimensions such that the displacement of the vessel is equal to the sum of the deadweight and the lightweight tonnages. The fineness of the hull must be appropriate to the speed. The draft—which is governed by freeboard rules—enables the depth to be determined to a first approximation.

      After selecting tentative values of length, breadth, depth, draft, and displacement, the designer must achieve a weight balance. He must also select a moment balance because centres of gravity in both longitudinal and vertical directions must provide satisfactory trim and stability. Additionally, he must estimate the shaft horsepower required for the specified speed; this determines the weight of machinery. The strength of the hull must be adequate for the service intended; detailed scantlings (frame dimensions and plate thicknesses) can be obtained from the rules of the classification society. These scantlings determine the requisite weight of hull steel.

      The vessel should possess satisfactory steering characteristics and freedom from troublesome vibration and should comply with the many varied requirements of international regulations. Possessing an attractive appearance, the ship should have the minimum net register tonnage, the factor on which harbour and other dues are based. (The gross tonnage represents the volume of all closed-in spaces above the inner bottom. The net tonnage is the gross tonnage minus certain deductible spaces that do not produce revenue. Net tonnage can therefore be regarded as a measure of the earning capacity of the ship, hence its use as a basis for harbour and docking charges.) Passenger vessels must satisfy a standard of bulkhead subdivision that will ensure adequate stability under specified conditions if the hull is pierced accidentally, as through collision.

      Compromise plays a considerable part in producing a satisfactory design. A naval architect must be a master of approximations. If the required design closely resembles that of a ship already built for which full information is available, the designer can calculate the effects of differences between this ship and the projected ship. If, however, this information is not available, he must first produce coefficients based upon experience and, after refining them, check the results by calculation.

Shipbuilding

The shipyard

      The wooden ship was constructed on a building berth, around which timbers and planking were cut and shaped and then fitted together on the berth to form the hull. A similar practice was followed with iron vessels and, later, with the earlier steel ships, as these tended to be replicas of wooden hulls. Gradually iron came to be used more effectively in its own right, rather than as a substitute for timber. The berth or slipway from which the vessel is launched is an assembly area, rather than a ship construction site. In many shipyards the number of launching berths has been reduced to increase the ground area available for prefabrication sheds. Greater ease of fabrication means that, despite the reduction in the number of berths, more ships can be built and construction costs lowered.

Organization (production management)

      A shipbuilder undertakes to deliver to the client by a certain date and for a stated sum a vessel with specific dimensions, capabilities, and qualities, a vessel that has been tested on trial and is ready for service. The function of a shipyard is the production of completed ships in accordance with the shipbuilder's undertakings. The raw materials for construction and finished items to be installed on board are delivered there. The labour force in the yard consists of various workmen—steelworkers, welders, shipwrights, blacksmiths, joiners, plumbers, turners, engine fitters, electricians, riggers, and painters.

      Management is headed by a chairman and a board of directors, consisting usually of about 6 to 12 members from the technical, commercial, and secretarial departments, with one or more representing outside interests. The chief departments are the design, drawing, and estimating offices, planning and production control, the shipyard department—responsible for construction up to launching—and the outside finishing department, which is responsible for all work on board after launching. Other departments are responsible for buying and storekeeping and the yard maintenance.

      The construction of the hull is only one of a shipbuilder's responsibilities. As soon as a contract is placed, he must negotiate with subcontractors for the supply of items that shipyards do not produce—the electric power plant, propulsion machinery, shafting and propellers, engine-room auxiliaries, deck machinery, anchors, cables, and furniture and furnishings. Production planning and control is therefore a complex undertaking, covering subcontracts, assembly, and installation, in which costs must be kept as low as possible.

Layout

      In general, a shipyard has few building berths and uses extensive areas around them for the construction of large components of the steel hull. Building berths slope downward toward the waterway, to facilitate launching. Building basins, or dry docks (dry dock), are sometimes used for the construction of very large vessels, because it is convenient to lower, rather than to lift, large assemblies, and this method also eliminates problems associated with launching. Extensive water frontage for the building berths is unnecessary. The main requirement is a site of considerable depth, rather than width, with a large area extending inland from the berths. Steel plates and sections are delivered to the shipyard at the end of the area farthest from the berths. There they are stored in a stockyard and removed, as needed, for cleaning, straightening, shaping, and cutting. Separate streams of plates and rolled sections converge toward the prefabrication shop, where they are used to build structural components or subassemblies. The subassemblies are transported to an area nearer the berths, where they are welded together to form large prefabricated units, which are then carried by cranes to the berth, to be welded into position on the ship.

      In practice, there are many variations in this general procedure. At the Götaverken shipyard at Göteborg, Sweden, for example, partly fitted-out sections of the ship are fabricated in sheds and welded to sections already completed. As the vessel becomes built up with component sections, it is moved out of the covered area into a building dock and further sections are attached until the ship is complete. Water is then admitted to the dock and the ship is floated out for completion in the fitting-out basin. An example of an outstanding shipbuilding facility is the Harland and Wolff building dock in Belfast, Northern Ireland, completed in 1970, then the largest of its kind in the world: 1,825 feet (556 metres) long, 305 feet (93 metres) wide, and 38 feet (12 metres) deep. It is large enough for the construction of a 1,000,000-ton dead-weight tanker. The dock is spanned by a travelling crane capable of lifting prefabricated structures of 840 tons maximum weight.

Planning

      Delivery of a completed ship by a specified date requires careful planning. Following the introduction in the United States of the critical path method (critical path analysis) of planning and control by the E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company about 1959, new techniques were adopted in many shipyards.

      The critical path method is the basis of network analysis, which is used in planning complex production projects. The network, and information derived from it, is used for overall planning of a project and also for detailed planning with production progress control. The network gives a logical, graphical representation of the project, showing the individual elements of work and their interrelation in the planned order of execution. Each element of work is represented by an arrow, the tail of which is the starting point of activity and its head the completion. The arrows are drawn to any suitable scale and may be straight or curved. An event, which represents the completion of one activity and the beginning of another, is usually indicated by a circle and described further by a number within the circle. But each activity need not be completed before the next activity is begun. The logical order of steelwork in a hull, for example, is: (1) detailed drawings of steelwork; (2) ordering of steel; (3) manufacture and delivery of steel; (4) storing of steel material in stockyard; (5) shotblasting, cleaning, and forming operations; (6) subassembly work; and (7) erection of structure on berth. These operations can be represented on a ladder type of diagram. Many such diagrams—ladder and other types—go toward making up the complete aggregate operation of building a ship. When the proper sequence of operations is decided upon, times must be allocated to each operation to ensure that the workers in charge understand their obligations. Planning, based on realistic estimates of times and costs, must begin at the precontract stage, so that, throughout the building program, a clear plan, with scheduled dates for each major section, is available. Detailed networks must be prepared for each of the major sections, showing dates for completion. The earliest and latest permissible starting and finishing times are indicated for each activity.

      The critical path of a project is a series of activities whose duration cannot be increased without delaying the completion of the project as a whole. In large networks there may be more than one critical path. Up to about 100 activities can be dealt with manually but, for more complex cases, the numerical work is done by computer. The spare time available for a series of activities—i.e., the maximum time these activities can be delayed without retarding the total project—is aggregated into a “total float.” This is regarded as a factor of safety to cover breakdowns, mishaps, and labour troubles. Intelligent and experienced use of critical path methods can provide information of great value. Savings in production costs depend upon the use that management makes of this information.

From contract to working plans

      Before an order is placed, the main technical qualities of the ship are decided upon and a general-arrangement drawing of the vessel, showing the disposition of cargo, fuel, and ballast, and crew and passenger accommodation is prepared. This plan provides a complete picture of the finished vessel. It is accompanied by detailed specifications of hull and machinery. This general-arrangement plan and the specifications form the basis of the contract between shipowner and shipbuilder.

      As soon as an order is confirmed, drawing offices and planning departments produce working plans and instructions. Since ships are usually constructed according to the rules of a classification society, the stipulated structural plans are normally submitted to the society for approval. The spacing of bulkheads in passenger ships, for example, must be approved by the appropriate authority. For all ships, passenger and cargo, the approval of the maximum permissible draft must be sought from the classification society. Necessary working drawings include the lines plan and detailed plans of the steel structure—shell plating, decks, erections, bulkheads, and framing—as well as accommodation spaces, plumbing, piping, and electrical installations, and main and auxiliary machinery layout. The planning and production department prepares a detailed progress schedule, fixing dates for the completion of various stages in the construction. A berth in the yard is allocated to the ship, arrangements for the requisite materials, labour, personnel, and machines are made, and precautions are taken to ensure that the many interrelated operations will progress according to the timetable.

The lines plan; fairing

      A lines plan, usually a ¹/₄₈ life-size scale drawing of a ship, is used by designers to calculate required hydrostatic, stability, and capacity conditions. Full-scale drawings formerly were obtained from the lines plan by redrawing it full size and preparing a platform of boards called a “scrive board” showing the length and shape of all frames and beams. Wood templates were then prepared from the scrive board and steel plates marked off and cut to size.

      An alternative to the full-scale scrive board is a photographic (photography, history of) method of marking off, introduced about 1950 and widely adopted. The lines plan is drawn and faired (mathematically delineated to produce a smooth hull free from bumps or discontinuities) to a scale of one-tenth full-size by draftsmen using special equipment and magnifying spectacles. The formerly used wood templates are thus replaced by specially prepared drawings, generally on one-tenth scale. Photographic transparencies of these drawings are then projected full size from a point overhead onto the actual steel plate. The plate is then marked off to show the details of construction, such as position of stiffening members, brackets, and so on. This optical marking-off system is much more economical in terms of space and skilled labour than the older method.

      By the 1960s, digital computers (computer) were being used to fair the preliminary lines plan by a numerical method. Faired surfaces can be produced to a specified degree of accuracy and the lines can be drawn by a numerically controlled drawing machine, bringing the process under continuous scrutiny. Tapes can be produced for use in numerically controlled plate-burning machines, which cut plates to shape, and for the automatic cold bending of frames and curved girders. Fairing calculations produce data that can be fed back into a computer, and programmed to generate hydrostatic and stability data and other information.

Fabrication and assembly

      Since 1930, rivetting (rivet) has been progressively supplanted by welding. This has proved more than a mere alteration in the method of connecting structural components because welding facilitates prefabrication of large component parts of the main hull structure.

      Before welding came into wide-scale use every ship was constructed on the building berth. The keel was laid, floors laid in place, frames or ribs erected, beams hung from the frames, and this skeleton, framed structure was held together by long pieces of wood called ribbands. Plating was then added and all the parts of the structure were rivetted together. In other words, the ship was built from the keel upward.

      The modern method is to construct large parts of the hull, for example, the complete bow and stern. Each of these parts is built up from subassemblies or component parts, which are then welded together to form the complete bow or stern. These sections of the ship are manufactured under cover in large sheds, generally at some distance from the building berth, before being transported to the berth and there fitted into place and welded to the adjacent section. The advantages of this procedure are that work can proceed under cover, unhampered by bad weather, and the units or component parts can be built up in sequences to suit the welding operations—not always possible at the building berth itself.

      A number of techniques can be used to weld together two pieces of the same metallic material. The ideal weld is a continuity of homogeneous material, with the same composition and the same physical properties as the parts being joined. In steel shipbuilding, metal arc welding is produced by an electric arc formed between the parts to be joined; the fusion material is supplied by a coated electrode. The welding electrode consists of a core rod that is deposited as weld metal; it is flux coated to protect the molten metal from the atmosphere during deposition and to supply certain metallurgical properties to the weld. A great deal of research has gone into the production of the best possible coated electrodes for specific duties. The main advantages of welding over rivetting are: (1) a lighter structure (because overlaps are eliminated), (2) improved watertightness and oiltightness, (3) smoother surfaces, and (4) reduced hull upkeep. Certain precautions, however, are necessary. The design of the structure must be adapted for welding because structural details which can be rivetted are seldom suitable for welding. The joints must be carefully prepared beforehand for welding. Incomplete penetration, lack of fusion, porosity, and cracking are typical weld defects that must be avoided. Hard spots must be avoided and gradual tapering off of stiffness is necessary if defects in service are to be minimized.

Launching, outfitting, and trials

Launching

      Apart from certain small craft built on inland waterways, which are launched sideways, the great majority of ships are launched stern first from the building berth. Standing structures called ways, constructed of concrete and wooden blocks, spaced about one-third of the vessel's beam apart, support the ship under construction. The slope of the standing ways—which are often cambered (slightly curved upward toward the middle or slightly curved downward toward the ends) in the fore and aft direction—ranges from one-half to three-quarters of an inch per foot of length (from 42 to 62 millimetres per metre of length); ways extend from a position near the bow to past the stern and for a certain distance into the water. Over these standing ways is built the launching cradle, which consists of sliding ways on which are built poppets, or supporting structures, of timber to provide support for the hull. Between standing ways and launching ways is a layer of lubricant.

      During construction the ship is supported by at least one line of blocks under the keel, with side supports and shores as necessary. As the vessel nears completion, the standing ways are built under it, the sliding ways are superimposed, and the cradle is built up. The weight of the vessel is transferred gradually to the standing ways. The full weight must not be supported by the ways for too long because the thickness of lubricant would be reduced by squeezing and its properties would be adversely affected. It is common to fit launching triggers which, when released at the moment of launching, permit the sliding ways to move over the standing ways.

      As a vessel moves down the ways, the forces operating are: its weight acting down through the centre of gravity, the upward support from the standing ways, and the buoyancy of the water. As it travels further, the buoyancy increases and the upthrust of the ways decreases, with the weight remaining constant. As the centre of gravity passes the after end of the standing ways, the moment of the weight about the end of the ways tends to tip the ship stern first. At this position and for some time later, it is essential that the moment of buoyancy be greater than the moment of weight about the after end of the ways, thus giving a moment to keep the forward end of the sliding ways on the standing ways; otherwise there would be concentration of weight at the end of the ways, causing excessive local pressure. Calculations are made to determine the most important factors in launching, namely, the moment at which the stern lifts, the difference between weight and buoyancy when the stern lifts, the existence of a moment against tipping, and the equality of weight and buoyancy before the vessel reaches the after end of the ways to ensure that the cradle will not drop off the end of the standing ways.

      The launching of a vessel into a restricted waterway requires the application of a retarding force. Usually piles of chains are laid alongside the sides of the ship to act as drags, and these are secured to chain plates by wire cables, fixed temporarily to the hull. As the vessel slides down the launching ways, the drags come serially into operation after, or sometimes before, the bow has cleared the after end of the ways. Launching can be a hazardous operation. If the lubricant is ineffective, the vessel will not move. If the stern does not lift as the vessel slides down the ways, the ship may tip about the way ends. The bow may sustain damage when it drops into the water at the end of the ways and may damage the slipway when the stern lifts. Excessive loads on the poppets may cause their collapse.

Outfitting

      After launching, the ship is berthed in a fitting-out basin for completion. The main machinery, together with auxiliaries, piping systems, deck gear, lifeboats, accommodation equipment, plumbing systems, and rigging are installed on board, along with whatever insulation and deck coverings are necessary. Fitting out may be a relatively minor undertaking, as with a tanker or a bulk carrier, but in the case of a passenger vessel, the work will be extensive. Although fitting-out operations are diverse and complex, as with hull construction there are four main divisions: (1) collection and grouping of the specified components, (2) installation of components according to schedule, (3) connection of components to appropriate piping and/or wiring systems, and (4) testing of completed systems.

      The tendency in planning has been to divide the ship into sections, listing the quantities of components required and times of delivery. Drawings necessary for each section are prepared and these specify the quantities of components required. A master schedule is compiled, specifying the sequences and target dates for completion and testing of each component system. This schedule is used to marshal and synchronize fitting work in the different sections and compartments.

Trials

      As the vessel nears completion a number of tests are made. The naval architect makes a careful assessment of the weight of the finished ship and checks its stability and loading particulars by reference to data for the ship's lightweight and centre of gravity, obtained from a simple inclining experiment. The inclining test also provides a check on calculations.

      Before the official sea trials, dockside trials are held for the preliminary testing of main and auxiliary machinery. Formal speed trials, necessary to fulfill contract terms, are often preceded by a builder's trial. Contract terms usually require the speed to be achieved under specified conditions of draft and deadweight, a requirement met by runs made over a measured course.

      It is usual to conduct a series of progressive speed trials, when the vessel's performance over a range of speeds is measured. The essential requirements for a satisfactory measured course are: adequate depth of water; freedom from sea traffic; sheltered, rather than exposed, waters; and clear marking posts to show the distance. Whenever possible, good weather conditions are sought. With a hull recently docked, cleaned, and painted, sea-trial performance can provide a valuable yardstick for assessing performance in service. Ideally, the ship should be run on trial in the fully loaded condition; but this is difficult to achieve with most dry-cargo ships. It is, however, comparatively simple to arrange in oil tankers, by filling the cargo tanks with seawater. Large vessels with a low displacement–power ratio must cover a considerable distance before steady speed can be attained; hence they need to make a long run before entering upon the measured distance.

Cuthbert Coulson Pounder J.F.C. Conn

Additional Reading

D.G.M. Watson, “Estimating Preliminary Dimensions in Ship Design,” Trans. Instn. Engrs. Shipbldrs. Scotl., 105:110–174 (1961–62), a comprehensive treatment of merchant ship design, rich in factual information and providing a series of useful graphs—an ingenious method of designing by volume is explained; T. Lamb, “A Ship Design Procedure,” Mar. Technology, 6:362–405 (1969), a useful treatment of the subject, covering all types of merchant ships, with an extensive bibliography; R.V. Turner, M. Harper, and D.I. Moor, “Some Aspects of Passenger Liner Design,” Trans. R. Instn. Nav. Archit., 105:379–414 (1963), a thoroughly practical paper dealing with the resistance, machinery, performance, stability, strength, and general arrangement of large passenger vessels; F.G. Fassett, Jr. (ed.), The Shipbuilding Business in the United States of America, 2 vol. (1948, reprinted 1970); D.J. Eyres, Ship Construction, 2nd ed. (1978). H.L. Seward (ed.), Marine Engineering, 2 vol. (1942–44), on all forms of prime movers, thermodynamics, and metals; J.H. Milton, Marine Steam Boilers, 4th ed. (1980), on natural and forced circulated boilers, superheaters, and classification society rules; A. Stodola and L.C. Loewenstein, Steam and Gas Turbines, 6th ed., 2 vol. (1927); H. Roxbee Cox (ed.), Gas Turbine Principles and Practice (1955), on thermodynamics, compressor and turbine design, materials, and fuels; C.C. Pounder et al., Marine Diesel Engines, 5th ed. (1972), a study of all well-known types, design, construction, and maintenance; L.R. Ford, Practical Marine Diesel Engineering, 4th ed. (1943), on operation and maintenance, with questions and answers; S. Glasstone and A. Sesonske, Nuclear Reactor Engineering, 2nd ed. (1980), originally prepared and compiled under auspices of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission in 1963.

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