bioceramics

Introduction

      ceramic products or components employed in medical and dental applications, mainly as implants and replacements. This article briefly describes the principal ceramic materials and surveys the uses to which they are put in medical and dental applications. For an explanation of important issues in biomedical uses of all materials (including ceramics), see the article materials science: Materials for medicine (materials science).

Medical ceramics (medicine)

 A major category of medical ceramics are those which repair or replace musculoskeletal hard connective tissues. For load-bearing hip prostheses, the principal ceramic is high-density, high-purity, fine-grained polycrystalline alumina (aluminum oxide, Al₂O₃). Alumina has excellent corrosion resistance, good biocompatibility, high wear resistance, and high strength. Other clinical applications include knee prostheses, bone screws, segmental bone replacements, and components for maxillofacial reconstruction. (See Figure 1—>.)

      In contrast to dense alumina, which is nearly inert in the human body, other bioceramic implants can serve as porous media to support the ingrowth of new bone tissue, as materials that bioreact with bone, or as “scaffolds” that are completely resorbed after establishing a template for tissue growth. When pores exceed 100 micrometres (0.004 inch) in size and are interconnected, bone will grow within the pore channels and maintain vascularity. Certain compositions of glasses, ceramics, glass-ceramics, and composites are bioactive—that is, they bond to bone—thanks to the formation on their surfaces of a biologically active layer of hydroxylapatite. Hydroxylapatite (HA) is a calcium phosphate compound, with the chemical formula Ca₅(PO₄)₃(OH), that is the essential mineral component of bone. Bioactive ceramics are also compounds of calcium and phosphorus. The different compositions can range from bioactive to completely resorbable, depending on their solubility. They are used clinically as powders, coatings, small unloaded implants (for example, in the middle ear), and porous implants for areas that are subjected to low mechanical loading and where bone growth acts as a reinforcing phase.

Dental ceramics

      Dental ceramic applications include resin-composite restorative materials, cementation agents, and fixed prostheses.

      Resin composites, owing to their superior aesthetic properties and to health concerns about the mercury in dental amalgams, have found increasing application in the repair and rebuilding of teeth. The resin binder is typically an aromatic dimethacrylate monomer, and the ceramic filler is pulverized quartz, colloidal silica, or silicate glasses containing strontium or barium (to enhance X-ray opacity). Resin composites lack the longevity of dental amalgams, particularly in posterior restorations. There are problems with placement and with degradation due to breakdown of the bond between the filler particles and the matrix. In addition, fatigue and thermal cycling can compromise the integrity of the interface between the composite and the original tooth material, leading to the formation of caries, or cavities.

      Dental cements are used for the cementation of crowns and bridges and as bases under other restorative materials. A good dental cement is strong and stiff, resistant to dissolution in the mouth, biocompatible with pulpal tissues, and cariostatic (i.e., helping to prevent caries). The ability to bond chemically to tooth structure is desirable, although mechanical retention is usually sufficient. The major ceramic dental cement systems are zinc phosphate and zinc oxide-eugenol (ZOE). Zinc phosphate is typically used for permanent cementation, whereas ZOE is used for temporary cementation. Both can serve as insulating bases to protect tissues from heat or cold passing through highly conductive amalgam restorations. Polycarboxylate cements consist of ceramic powders (zinc oxide or pulverized silicate glasses) in a solution of polyacrylic acid. They can bond directly to clean enamel and dentin by chelation of carboxyl groups to calcium ions in the dental material. A rather sharp setting reaction occurs, resulting in a hardened cement.

      A large fraction of all fixed prostheses—e.g., crowns and inlays—are made of porcelain-fused-to-metal (PFM) cermets. These consist of a cast metal substrate, a metal oxide adhesion layer, and several layers of porcelain. The porcelain hides the metal while providing translucency and colour. It must be thermally compatible with the metal to stand up to the multiple firing steps employed. The longevity of PFM prostheses is generally comparable to cast-metal restorations.

 Dental ceramics are only one of the several types of advanced structural ceramics. For a survey of the issues involved in adapting ceramics for demanding structural applications, see advanced structural ceramics. For a directory to all the articles covering both traditional and advanced industrial ceramics, see Industrial Ceramics: Outline of Coverage—.

Additional Reading

Specific information on bioceramics is provided by Gary Fischman, Alexis Clare, and Larry L. Hench (eds.), Bioceramics: Materials and Applications (1995), conference papers; and the subsection by Larry L. Hench, “Medical and Scientific Products,” in Theodore J. Reinhart (ed.), Engineered Materials Handbook, vol. 4, Ceramics and Glasses, ed. by Samuel J. Schneider (1991), pp. 1007–14. The section titled “Structural Applications for Technical, Engineering, and Advanced Ceramics,” pp. 959–1014 in the Reinhart work cited above, presents an overview of advanced structural ceramics.Thomas O. Mason

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