art and architecture, Mesopotamian

Introduction

      the art and architecture of the ancient Mesopotamian civilizations.

      The name Mesopotamia has been used with varying connotations by ancient writers. If, for convenience, it is to be considered synonymous with the modern state of Iraq, it can be seen in terms of two fairly well-defined provinces: a flat alluvial plain in the south and, in the north, the uplands through which the country's twin rivers flow in their middle courses. This geographic division of the area is reflected in the history of its cultural development from the earliest times.

      The first traces of settled communities are found in the northern region and date from the mid-6th millennium BC, a period that archaeologists associate with the transition from a Neolithic (Neolithic Period) to a Chalcolithic Age. It is of some importance that this period also corresponds to the earliest use of painted ornament on pottery vessels, since the designs used for this purpose are the most reliable criteria by which ethnological groupings and migratory movements can be distinguished. Archaeologically, such groupings are, for the most part, arbitrarily named after the site at which traces of them were first found, and the same names are sometimes attributed to the prehistoric periods during which they were predominant. Hence, Hassuna, Hassuna-Sāmarrāʾ, and Halaf in northern Iraq are the names given to the first three periods during which known early settlements were successively occupied by peoples whose relations were apparently with Syria and Anatolia. The designs on their pottery, sometimes in more than one colour, usually consist of zones filled with “geometric” ornament in patterns reminiscent of woven fabrics. These designs are often adapted to the shape of the vessels with creditable artifice. Only in Hassuna-Sāmarrāʾ pottery do devices occasionally appear that consist of animal, bird, or even human figures, ingeniously stylized and aesthetically attractive. Such motifs, however, appear to be adopted from contemporary Iranian ceramics. The only other notable art form popular at this time is that of hominoid figurines of stone or clay, associated with primitive religious cults; however, their formal idiosyncrasies vary greatly from group to group, and the meaning of their symbolism is unknown. Nor can they—or the pottery designs—be considered as ancestral to Mesopotamian art of historical times, the antecedents of which must be sought in southern Iraq.

      Here, in the delta, the earliest phase of prehistory is associated with the name Ubaid I; and, since this phase has a parallel in Susiana (Elam), north of the Iranian frontier, the first settlers in both areas may have a common origin. Among these settlers, according to some scholars, was the germ of Sumerian genius, but this is not indisputably authenticated until the end of the 4th millennium. By 3100 BC, however, the presence of the Sumerians is finally proved by the invention of writing as a vehicle for their own language. From then onward, successive phases in the evolution of Sumerian art can satisfactorily be studied.

      Three factors may be recognized as contributing to the character of Mesopotamian art and architecture. One is the sociopolitical organization of the Sumerian city-states (city-state) and of the kingdoms and empires that succeeded them. From the earliest times, cities were fortified by and adorned with public buildings; irrigation systems were organized and jealously protected; armies were efficiently equipped and troops trained in concerted action; victories were celebrated and treaties ratified. Because interstate warfare or foreign conquests were primary preoccupations of Mesopotamian rulers, it is understandable that in most periods a certain class of artworks was dedicated simply to the glorification of their military prowess.

      A second and even more important factor, however, is the major role played by organized religion in Mesopotamian (Mesopotamian religion) affairs of state. Particularly in Sumerian times, the municipal and economic organization of a city was the responsibility of the temple, with its hierarchical priesthood in which was vested an authority almost equal to that of the ruler and his advisory council of elders. Accordingly, in the early days of Sumer and Babylonia, architectural attention was paid primarily to religious buildings, and all sculpture served religious purposes. The elaboration and adornment of palaces was an innovation of Assyrian times (see below Assyrian period (art and architecture, Mesopotamian)).

      The third factor that contributed to the character of Mesopotamian art is the influence of the natural environment. The practical limitations imposed upon both artist and architect by the geology and climate of southern Iraq are immediately apparent. Since no stone or wood was available in the alluvial plain, sculptors were dependent on scarce imported material or compelled to use such substitutes as terra-cotta (baked clay). Architecture also was profoundly affected, first, by the restriction of building material to brickwork and, second, by problems of roof construction, only partially solved by the contrivance of brick vaulting, in the 2nd millennium BC. For the Assyrians, in the north, good-quality stone was plentiful, but the cost of quarrying and transport, combined with an obstinate conservatism, caused it to be regarded as a luxury material and its use to be confined to sculptured ornament and conspicuous architectural features.

      An equally apparent, if more abstract, association between Mesopotamian art and environment can be detected when the intellectual climate engendered by the latter is understood. In a country where summer and winter temperatures reach thermometric extremes, where agriculture depends exclusively on the artificial distribution of river water and contends precariously with the timing of seasonal floods, where the herdsman is afflicted by the depredations of wild beasts and the cultivator by the menace of poisonous insects—in such a country, the inhabitants must have felt themselves in perpetual conflict with hostile and potentially destructive elements in nature. All this confrontation and frustration is reflected in the melancholy undertones of their religious beliefs, particularly those of the Sumerians, for whom success and prosperity came to be identified with the principle of fertility and thus could only be attained by the appeasement of capricious deities. Such convictions are inherent in the fabric of their complicated mythology, which lends itself easily to expression in pictorial form and provides the predominant subject of almost all Sumerian art. Furthermore, since their mythical traditions and religious beliefs persisted for many centuries after the demise of the Sumerians themselves, they provided the basic imagery of almost all Mesopotamian art.

Sumerian (Sumer) period

architecture

      The beginnings of monumental architecture in Mesopotamia are usually considered to have been contemporary with the founding of the Sumerian cities and the invention of writing, in about 3100 BC. Conscious attempts at architectural design during this so-called Protoliterate period (c. 3400–c. 2900 BC) are recognizable in the construction of religious buildings. There is, however, one temple, at Abū Shahrayn (ancient Eridu), that is no more than a final rebuilding of a shrine the original foundation of which dates back to the beginning of the 4th millennium; the continuity of design has been thought by some to confirm the presence of the Sumerians throughout the temple's history. Already, in the Ubaid period (c. 5200–c. 3500 BC), this temple anticipated most of the architectural characteristics of the typical Protoliterate Sumerian platform temple (Erech). It is built of mud brick on a raised plinth (platform base) of the same material, and its walls are ornamented on their outside surfaces with alternating buttresses (supports) and recesses. Tripartite in form, its long central sanctuary is flanked on two sides by subsidiary chambers, provided with an altar at one end and a freestanding offering table at the other. Typical temples of the Protoliterate period—both the platform type and the type built at ground level—are, however, much more elaborate both in planning and ornament. Interior wall ornament often consists of a patterned mosaic of terra-cotta cones sunk into the wall, their exposed ends dipped in bright colours or sheathed in bronze. An open hall at the Sumerian city of Uruk (biblical Erech; modern Tall al-Warkāʾ, Iraq) contains freestanding and attached brick columns that have been brilliantly decorated in this way. Alternatively, the internal-wall faces of a platform temple could be ornamented with mural paintings depicting mythical scenes, such as at ʿUqair.

      The two forms of temple—the platform variety and that built at ground level—persisted throughout the early dynasties of Sumerian history (c. 2900–c. 2400 BC). It is known that two of the platform temples originally stood within walled enclosures, oval in shape and containing, in addition to the temple, accommodation for priests. But the raised shrines themselves are lost, and their appearance can be judged only from facade ornaments discovered at Tall al-ʿUbayd (Ubayd, Tall al-ʿ). These devices, which were intended to relieve the monotony of sun-dried brick or mud plaster, include a huge copper-sheathed lintel, with animal figures modeled partly in the round; wooden columns sheathed in a patterned mosaic of coloured stone or shell; and bands of copper-sheathed bulls and lions, modeled in relief but with projecting heads. The planning of ground-level temples continued to elaborate on a single theme: a rectangular sanctuary, entered on the cross axis, with altar, offering table, and pedestals for votive statuary (statues used for vicarious worship or intercession).

      Considerably less is known about palaces (palace) or other secular buildings at this time. Circular brick columns and austerely simplified facades have been found at Kish (modern Tall al-Uhaimer, Iraq). Flat roofs, supported on palm trunks, must be assumed, although some knowledge of corbeled vaulting (a technique of spanning an opening like an arch by having successive cones of masonry project farther inward as they rise on each side off the gap)—and even of dome construction—is suggested by tombs at Ur, where a little stone was available.

Sculpture (Western sculpture)

      Practically all Sumerian sculpture served as adornment or ritual equipment for the temples. No clearly identifiable cult statues of gods or goddesses have yet been found. Many of the extant figures in stone are votive statues, as indicated by the phrases used in the inscriptions that they often bear: “It offers prayers,” or “Statue, say to my king (god). . . .” Male statues stand or sit with hands clasped in an attitude of prayer. They are often naked above the waist and wear a woolen skirt curiously woven in a pattern that suggests overlapping petals (commonly described by the Greek word kaunakes, meaning “thick cloak”). A togalike garment sometimes covers one shoulder. Men generally wear long hair and a heavy beard, both often trimmed in corrugations and painted black. The eyes and eyebrows are emphasized with coloured inlay. The female coiffure varies considerably but predominantly consists of a heavy coil arranged vertically from ear to ear and a chignon behind. The hair is sometimes concealed by a headdress of folded linen. Ritual nakedness is confined to priests.

      It has been thought that the rarity of stone in Mesopotamia contributed to the primary stylistic distinction between Sumerian and Egyptian sculpture. The Egyptians quarried their own stone (art and architecture, Egyptian) in prismatic blocks, and one can see that, even in their freestanding statues, strength of design is attained by the retention of geometric unity. By contrast, in Sumer, stone must have been imported from remote sources, often in the form of miscellaneous boulders, the amorphous character of which seems to have been retained by the statues into which they were transformed.

      Beyond this general characteristic of Sumerian sculpture, two successive styles have been distinguished in the middle and late subdivisions of the Early Dynastic period. One very notable group of figures, from Tall al-Asmar, Iraq (ancient Eshnunna), dating from the first of these phases, shows a geometric simplification of forms that, to modern taste, is ingenious and aesthetically acceptable. Statues characteristic of the second phase, on the other hand, though technically more competently carved, show aspirations to naturalism that are sometimes overly ambitious. In this second style, some scholars see evidence of occasional attempts at portraiture. Yet, in spite of minor variations, all these figures adhere to the single formula of presenting the conventional characteristics of Sumerian physiognomy. Their provenance is not confined to the Sumerian cities in the south. An important group of statues is derived from the ancient capital of Mari, on the middle Euphrates, where the population is known to have been racially different from the Sumerians. In the Mari statues there also appears to have been no deviation from the sculptural formula; they are distinguished only by technical peculiarities in the carving.

 Deprived of stone, Sumerian sculptors exploited alternative materials. Fine examples of metal casting (metalwork) have been found, some of them suggesting knowledge of the cire perdue (lost-wax) process, and copper statues more than half life-size are known to have existed. In metalwork, however, the ingenuity of Sumerian artists is perhaps best judged from their contrivance of composite figures. The earliest and one of the finest examples of such figures—and of Sumerian sculpture as a whole—comes from a Protoliterate level of excavation at Tall al-Warkāʾ (Erech). It is the limestone face of a life-size statue (Iraqi Museum, Baghdad), the remainder of which must have been composed of other materials; the method of attachment is visible on the surviving face. Devices of this sort were brought to perfection by craftsmen of the Early Dynastic period, the finest examples of whose work are to be seen among the treasures from the royal tombs at Ur: a bull's head decorating a harp, composed of wood or bitumen covered with gold and wearing a lapis lazuli beard (British Museum); a rampant he-goat in gold and lapis, supported by a golden tree (University Museum, Philadelphia); the composite headdresses of court ladies (British Museum, Iraqi Museum, and University Museum); or, more simply, the miniature figure of a wild ass, cast in electrum (a natural yellow alloy of gold and silver) and mounted on a bronze rein ring (British Museum). The inlay and enrichment of wooden objects reaches its peak in this period, as may be seen in the so-called standard or double-sided panel from Ur (British Museum), on which elaborate scenes of peace and war are depicted in a delicate inlay of shell and semiprecious stones (see photograph—>). The refinement of craftsmanship in metal is also apparent in the famous wig-helmet of gold (Iraqi Museum), belonging to a Sumerian prince, and in weapons, implements, and utensils.

      Relief carving in stone was a medium of expression popular with the Sumerians and first appears in a rather crude form in Protoliterate times. In the final phase of the Early Dynastic period, its style became conventional. The most common form of relief sculpture was that of stone plaques, 1 foot (30 centimetres) or more square, pierced in the centre for attachment to the walls of a temple, with scenes depicted in several registers (horizontal rows). The subjects usually seem to be commemorative of specific events, such as feasts or building activities, but representation is highly standardized, so that almost identical plaques have been found at sites as much as 500 miles (800 kilometres) apart. Fragments of more ambitious commemorative stelae (stela) have also been recovered; the Stele of Vultures (Louvre Museum) from Telloh, Iraq (ancient Lagash), is one example. Although it commemorates a military victory, it has a religious content. The most important figure is that of a patron deity, emphasized by its size, rather than that of the king. The formal massing of figures suggests the beginnings of mastery in design, and a formula has been devised for mutiplying identical figures, such as chariot horses.

      In a somewhat different category are the cylinder seals (cylinder seal) so widely utilized at this time. Used for the same purposes as the more familiar stamp seal and likewise engraved in negative (intaglio), the cylinder-shaped seal was rolled over wet clay on which it left an impression in relief. Delicately carved with miniature designs on a variety of stones or shell, cylinder seals rank as one of the higher forms of Sumerian art.

  Prominent among their subjects is the complicated imagery of Sumerian mythology and religious ritual. Still only partially understood, their skillful adaptation to linear designs can at least be easily appreciated. Some of the finest cylinder seals date from the Protoliterate period (see photograph—>). After a slight deterioration in the first Early Dynastic period, when brocade patterns or files of running animals were preferred (see photograph—>), mythical scenes returned. Conflicts are depicted between wild beasts and protecting demigods or hybrid figures, associated by some scholars with the Sumerian epic of Gilgamesh. The monotony of animated motifs is occasionally relieved by the introduction of an inscription.

Akkadian (Akkad) period

       Sargon of Akkad's (reigned c. 2334–c. 2279 BC) unification of the Sumerian city-states and creation of a first Mesopotamian empire profoundly affected the art of his people, as well as their language and political thought. The increasingly large proportion of Semitic elements in the population were in the ascendancy, and their personal loyalty to Sargon and his successors replaced the regional patriotism of the old cities. The new conception of kingship (king) thus engendered is reflected in artworks of secular grandeur, unprecedented in the god-fearing world of the Sumerians.

architecture

      One would indeed expect a similar change to be apparent in the character of contemporary architecture, and the fact that this is not so may be due to the paucity of excavated examples. It is known that the Sargonid dynasty had a hand in the reconstruction and extension of many Sumerian temples (for example, at Nippur) and that they built palaces with practical amenities (Tall al-Asmar (Eshnunna)) and powerful fortresses on their lines of imperial communication (Tell Brak, or Tall Birāk (Birāk, Tall) at-Taḥtānī, Syria). The ruins of their buildings, however, are insufficient to suggest either changes in architectural style or structural innovations.

Sculpture (Western sculpture)

 Two notable heads of Akkadian statues have survived: one in bronze and the other of stone. The bronze head of a king (see photograph—>), wearing the wig-helmet of the old Sumerian rulers, is probably Sargon himself (Iraqi Museum). Though lacking its inlaid eyes and slightly damaged elsewhere, this head is rightly considered one of the great masterpieces of ancient art. The Akkadian head (Iraqi Museum) in stone, from Bismāyah, Iraq (ancient Adab), suggests that portraiture in materials other than bronze had also progressed.

      Where relief sculpture (relief) is concerned, an even greater accomplishment is evident in the famous Naram-Sin (Sargon's grandson) stela (Louvre), on which a pattern of figures is ingeniously designed to express the abstract idea of conquest. Other stelae (stela) and the rock reliefs (which by their geographic situation bear witness to the extent of Akkadian conquest) show the carving of the period to be in the hands of less competent artists. Yet two striking fragments in the Iraqi Museum, which were found in the region of An-Nāṣirīyah (Nāṣiriyyah, Al-), Iraq, once more provide evidence of the improvement in design and craftsmanship that had taken place since the days of the Sumerian dynasties. One of the fragments shows a procession of naked war prisoners, in which the anatomic details are well observed but skillfully subordinated to the rhythmical pattern required by the subject.

      Some compensation for the paucity of surviving Akkadian sculptures is to be found in the varied and plentiful repertoire of contemporary cylinder seals (cylinder seal). The Akkadian seal cutter's craft reached a standard of perfection virtually unrivaled in later times. Where the aim of his Sumerian predecessor had been to produce an uninterrupted, closely woven design, the Akkadian seal cutter's own preference was for clarity in the arrangement of a number of carefully spaced figures.

      The Akkadian dynasty ended in disaster when the river valley was overrun by the mountain tribes of northern Iran. Of all the Mesopotamian cities, only Lagash appears somehow to have remained aloof from the conflict and, under its famous governor Gudea, to have successfully maintained the continuity of the Mesopotamian cultural tradition. In particular, the sculpture dating from this short interregnum (c. 2100 BC) seems to represent some sort of posthumous flowering of Sumerian genius. The well-known group of statues of the governor and other notables, discovered at the end of the 19th century, long remained the only criterion by which Sumerian art could be judged, and examples in the Louvre and British Museum are still greatly admired. The hard stone, usually diorite, is carved with obvious mastery and brought to a fine finish. Details are cleverly stylized, but the musculature is carefully studied, and the high quality of the carving makes the use of inlay unnecessary. The powerful impression of serene authority that these statues convey justifies their inclusion among the finest products of ancient Middle Eastern art.

Sumerian revival

      The short historical interlude represented by the Gudea sculptures was followed by a full-scale Sumerian revival, one that lasted for four centuries and culminated in the unification of the whole country under the rule of Hammurabi in the early 18th century BC. Dominated first by the powerful 3rd dynasty of Ur and later by the rival states of Isin and Larsa, the peoples of ancient Sumer reverted to their pre-Akkadian cultural traditions. On their northern frontiers the Sumerian culture was extended to increasingly prosperous younger city-states, such as Mari, Ashur, and Eshnunna, located on the middle courses of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

      In all these cities, both old and new, the period is notable for the advances made in architectural planning and the large-scale reconstruction of ancient buildings. In the south the early promise of Sumerian architecture had reached fulfillment, first in the great ziggurats (ziggurat), or stepped towers, rising above their walled temple enclosures at such cities as Ur, Eridu, Kish, Uruk (Erech), and Nippur. These huge structures, with their summit sanctuaries, the appearance of which can only be guessed at, were faced with kiln-baked brick, paneled and recessed to break the monotony of their colossal facades, and were strengthened with bitumen and reinforced with twisted reeds. Tradition associates the ziggurat at Borsippa (modern Birs Nimrūd, Iraq), near Babylon, with the biblical Tower of Babel. Surrounding temples at ground level were also much elaborated. The basic plan consisted of a tower-flanked entry, central court, antecella (or inner vestibule), and sanctuary, all arranged on a single axis; however, in the larger examples this plan could be expanded by means of communicating courtyards. Facades were often elaborately decorated with panels of pilasters (recessed columns) or engaged half columns, skillfully modeled in mud-brick. At Ur, kiln-baked brick was again used to construct corbeled vaulting over huge subterranean tomb chambers, entered through funerary chapels at ground level. Here, too, there are temple-palaces, the complicated planning of which is seldom self-explanatory.

      Better examples of residential palaces are found in the newer cities of the north, especially Mari, where a vast building with more than 200 rooms was constructed by a ruler named Zimrilim (c. 1779–c. 1761). In this palace is found the standard reception unit common to all Babylonian palaces: a rectangular throne room that is entered by a central doorway from a square court of honour; and behind it a great hall, in this case apparently serving some religious purpose. There also is an immense outer courtyard, overlooked by a raised audience chamber, and, in the remotest corner of the building, a heavily protected residential suite. In some of the main chambers, mural paintings depicting ritual scenes and processions have been preserved.

      The sculpture of this period is perhaps best represented by some well-preserved statues, also from the Mari palace. Their style owes much to the preceding Gudea period in the south, but they lack the authentic stamp of Sumerian design and workmanship. The same may be said of the few surviving pieces from the reign of Hammurabi (c. 1792–c. 1750), whose conquests ended the epoch—for example, the relief at the head of the stela in the Louvre on which his law code is inscribed.

Assyrian (Assyria) period

architecture

       Ashur, a small Sumerian city-state on the middle Euphrates, began to gain political prominence during the pre-Hammurabi period discussed above. During the latter half of the 2nd millennium BC, the frontiers of Assyria were extended to include the greater part of northern Mesopotamia, and, in the city of Ashur itself, excavations have revealed the fortifications and public buildings constructed or rebuilt by a long line of Assyrian kings. The character of these buildings suggests a logical development of Old Babylonian architecture. There are certain innovations, such as the incorporation of small twin ziggurats in the design of a single temple, while in the temples themselves the sanctuary was lengthened on its main axis, and the altar itself was withdrawn into a deep recess. For the rest, the absence of ornament and the multiplication of buttressed facades with crenellated battlements tend to monotony.

      Other forms of art are inconspicuous, except perhaps the contemporary cylinder seals (cylinder seal), which show an interest in animal forms that anticipates the relief carving of a later phase of Mesopotamian civilization. Sometimes known as Middle Assyrian, this later period corresponds to the occupation of southern Mesopotamia by the Kassites (Kassite) and to the Mitanni kingdom on the north Syrian frontier, neither of which contributed greatly to the total development of ancient Middle Eastern art.

      The fuller manifestation of Assyrian art and architecture is not seen until the 9th century BC, when Ashurnasirpal II (Ashurbanipal) transferred his capital from Ashur to Nimrūd (ancient Kalakh; biblical Calah). The rise of Assyria to imperial power during this century and those that followed gave increased vitality to Mesopotamian architecture. The vast palaces (palace) brought to light in the 19th century emphasize the new interest in secular building and reflect the ostentatious grandeur of the Assyrian kings. Like the temples of earlier days, they are usually artificially raised up on a platform level with the tops of the city walls, astride which they often stand. Their gates are flanked by colossal portal sculptures in stone, and their internal chambers are decorated with pictorial reliefs carved on upright stone slabs, or orthostats. In addition to the 9th-century structure at Nimrūd, palace platforms have been exposed at Khorsabad (ancient Dur Sharrukin), where Sargon II established a short-lived capital of his own in the late 8th century BC, and at Nineveh, which was rebuilt in the 7th century, first by Sargon's son Sennacherib and then by his grandson Esarhaddon. On the platforms at both Nineveh and Nimrūd, palaces and temples were multiplied by successive kings.

 The platform at Khorsabad is occupied by a single royal residence, associated with a group of three modest temples and a small ziggurat. Similar buildings occupy a walled citadel at the foot of the platform, thus completing a complex that has been thoroughly excavated and provides the most informative example of typical contemporary architecture (see photograph—>). Sargon's palace itself, like that of Zimrilim 1,000 years earlier (see above Sumerian revival (art and architecture, Mesopotamian)), is planned, first, around a gigantic open courtyard accessible to the public and, second, around an inner court of honour. From the latter the great throne room is entered through triple doorways, around which, in common with the main outer entrance to the palace, are concentrated a fine array of portal sculptures. The throne room has an adjoining stairway leading to a flat roof and a suite of living apartments behind. Other state rooms, conventionally planned, open onto an open terrace facing the mountains beyond. All the principal internal chambers are decorated with reliefs, except for the throne room itself, where mural painting seems to have been preferred. The individual purpose and function of the innumerable administrative and domestic offices must remain largely conjectural.

Sculpture (Western sculpture)

 Any history of late Assyrian art must be concerned primarily with relief carving (relief). Some statues in the round have been found, but the comparative ineptitude of the majority of them suggests that this form of expression did not come naturally to Assyrian sculptors. Portal sculptures, which many would consider the most characteristic Assyrian art form, are not statues in the round but “double-aspect” reliefs (that is, they are meant to be seen from either the front or the side), apparently derived from a Hittite invention of the 14th century BC. These impressive guardian figures—usually human-headed bulls (see photograph—>) or lions—decorate the arched gateways and are sometimes supplemented by others set at right angles on the adjoining facades, their heads facing sideways. Each is composed from a single block of stone weighing up to 30 tons, roughly shaped in the quarry and then carved in situ.

      Less spectacular orthostat reliefs form a continuous frieze of ornament around the bases of interior wall faces. There is evidence that they were placed in position before the walls that they decorate had been completed. Their carving in situ could thus be executed in full daylight. This form of architectural ornament dates from the first quarter of the 9th century BC and seems to have been a genuine Assyrian innovation. The earliest slabs, from the 9th-century palaces of Ashurnasirpal II and his son Shalmaneser III at Nimrūd, are about seven feet (two metres) high, with the design arranged in two superimposed registers separated by a band of cuneiform inscription. In those from later buildings, such as Sargon II's palace at Khorsabad, the individual sculptured figures reach a height of nine feet.

      The subjects of the designs on these reliefs are rarely related in any way to religion. Superstitious symbols do occasionally appear in the form of benevolent winged beings, or genies, but the primary purpose of the picture is the glorification of the king himself, either by scenes of ceremonial homage or by extended pictorial narratives of his achievements. The most popular theme, giving rise to numerous variations, involves detailed scenes of military conquest and the ruthless suppression of revolt. These are often arranged episodically to represent successive events in the progress of a single campaign: the Assyrian army prepares for war; led by the king, it crosses difficult country on the way to attack a walled city; the city is taken, burnt, and demolished; the enemy leaders are punished with conspicuous brutality; and, finally, the victory is celebrated. Scenes such as these are distinguished above all by their stylistic vitality and fanciful detail. Animals as well as men are carefully observed and beautifully drawn. The principles of perspective as later defined by the Greeks are unknown, but attention is given to the relationship of figures in space and to devices for suggesting comparative distance.

      At Khorsabad, late in the 8th century BC, some notable stylistic changes are perceptible. The lively carving of narrative and historical subjects has been replaced by more tedious symbols of pomp and ceremony. In keeping with the winged bulls and genies of the portal sculptures, stiffly arranged files of courtiers, officials, and servants stand immobilized in the routine of ceremonial homage. The monotony of the figures is occasionally relieved by the sparing use of coloured pigment on the stone.

      In the 7th-century palaces of Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal at Nineveh, the reliefs suggest a reaction in favour of narrative and violent activity. The slabs are covered to their full height by complicated battle scenes in which the progress of the fighting is suggested by episodic repetition. Types of landscape are depicted schematically, and significant episodes or individuals are identified by a short inscription, without impairing the overall rhythm of the design.

 In the intervals between their military campaigns, Assyrian kings appear to have been much preoccupied with hunting, and scenes from the chase provided an alternative subject for the reliefs. Lions hunted with spears from a light chariot and herds of wild asses (onagers) or gazelles are subjects that stimulated the imagination and sensibility of the Assyrian artist (see photograph—>).

      A contrast to these descriptive carvings is provided by the formal monumentality of the Assyrian rock reliefs, secular or religious devices carved on vertical rock faces in localities such as Bavian and Maltai to commemorate historical events that took place there.

      The Assyrian talent for relief ornament was not confined to sculpture in stone. First seen during the reign of Shalmaneser III (858–824 BC) are striking examples of relief modeling in bronze (bronze work). The huge wooden gates of a minor palace at Imgur-Enlil (Balawat), near Nimrūd, were decorated with horizontal bands of metal, 11 inches (28 centimetres) high, each modeled by a repoussé process (relief hammered out from behind), with a double register of narrative scenes. Their subjects are much the same as the stone reliefs, but even greater ingenuity has been used in adapting the designs to so confined a space.

Painting (painting, Western) and decorative arts

      When greater economy of labour and material was necessary, mural paintings were substituted for slab reliefs. At the time of Tiglath-pileser III (744–727 BC), a country palace at Til Barsip (modern Tall al-Ahmar) was decorated in this way, with the conventional motifs of relief designs rather clumsily adapted to this very different medium. A few years later, such paintings were extensively used to decorate both wall faces and ceilings in Sargon II's palace buildings at Khorsabad. One magnificent panel of formalized ornament has been reconstructed. It is painted in primary colours on a white ground.

      There is evidence that the Assyrian palaces were well equipped with furniture. The wooden components have perished, but the ivory ornaments with which the furniture was enriched have survived in great quantities. Of these “Assyrian ivories”—relief panels, inlays, and other forms of ornament—only a small proportion can be attributed to indigenous workmanship. The remainder represent either loot from the cities of Syria and Phoenicia or the work of craftsmen imported from those regions. The carving is often technically superb, and the enrichment of the ivory with gold, semiprecious stones, or coloured paste by cloisonné or champlevé processes (whereby the applied decoration is outlined by raised metal strips or fills depressed areas of the surface that have been cut out to receive it) gives increased elegance. The designs, however, are for the most part a pastiche of misunderstood Egyptian symbolism and are often less attractive than the purely Assyrian devices.

Neo-Babylonian period

      During the half century following the fall of Nineveh, in 612 BC, there was a final flowering of Mesopotamian culture in southern Iraq under the last dynasty of Babylonian kings. During the reigns of Nabopolassar (625–605 BC) and his son Nebuchadrezzar (Nebuchadrezzar I) II (604–562 BC), there was widespread building activity. Temples and ziggurats were repaired or rebuilt in almost all the old dynastic cities, while Babylon itself was enormously enlarged and surrounded by a double enceinte, or line of fortification, consisting of towered and moated fortress walls. Inside the city the most grandiose effect was obtained by the disposal of public buildings along a wide processional way, leading through the centre of the town to the temple and ziggurat of its patron god, Marduk. Where the street passed through the inner-city wall, the facades of the famous Ishtar Gate (Pergamon Museum, Berlin) and those facing the adjoining street were ornamented in brightly glazed brickwork, with huge figures of bulls, lions, and dragons modeled in relief. This form of decoration—a costly process, since each of the bricks composing the figures had to be separately cast—provided a solution for the problem of embellishing mud-brick facades. It appears again in the court of honour of Nebuchadrezzar's palace, using a more sophisticated design that suggests familiarity with Greek ornament. For the rest, there are few innovations in the planning of either palaces or temples during the Neo-Babylonian period. Also (strangely enough, in view of the prolonged excavations that took place at this site), examples of contemporary art are limited almost exclusively to cylinder seals and terra-cotta figurines of unpretentious design.

Additional Reading

General works on ancient Middle Eastern arts include Henri Frankfort, The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient (1954, reissued 1995), a full critical study by an eminent scholar, now somewhat outdated; H.A. Groenewegen-Frankfort, Arrest and Movement: An Essay on Space and Time in the Representational Art of the Ancient Near East (1951, reprinted 1987), a detailed study of aesthetic values and symbolic abstractions; Seton Lloyd, The Art of the Ancient Near East (1961), a well-illustrated survey for the general reader; and Michael Roaf, Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East (1990), fully illustrated with extensive text.Studies of Mesopotamian arts include Anton Moortgat, The Art of Ancient Mesopotamia (1969; originally published in German, 1967); Andre Parrot, Nineveh and Babylon, trans. from French (1961), and Sumer (1960; originally published in French, 1960); Eva Strommenger and Max Hirmer, 5000 Years of the Art of Mesopotamia (1964; originally published in German, 1962); C. Leonard Woolley, The Development of Sumerian Art (1935; reprinted 1981), and Ur of the Chaldees, 2nd ed. (1950, reissued 1965); Joan Oates, Babylon, rev. ed. (1986); Pierre Amiet, Art of the Ancient Near East (1980; originally published in French, 1977); and A. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization, rev. ed. completed by Erica Reiner (1977).Seton H.F. Lloyd Ed.

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