Abbās Iʿ

▪ viceroy of Egypt

also called  ʿAbbās Ḥilmī I 

born 1813

died July 13, 1854, Banhā, Egypt

      viceroy of Egypt under the Ottomans from 1848 to 1854. Despite his relatively peaceful and prosperous reign as viceroy of Egypt, ʿAbbās was largely vilified as selfish, secretive, cruel, and a reactionary. Nevertheless, some scholars have since noted that ʿAbbās's much-blackened image may have owed a great deal to exaggerated or fabricated accounts put forth by his opponents in light of disputes among the elite and other motivating factors.

      Prepared for government service from a young age by his grandfather, Muḥammad ʿAlī (viceroy 1805–48), ʿAbbās served in several other administrative and military positions prior to his reign as viceroy, including as a military commander in Syria. As viceroy, ʿAbbās responded unfavourably to the sweeping administrative and economic reforms initiated by Muḥammad ʿAlī by closing down or neglecting the public and military schools and factories. He reduced the armed forces, stopped the construction of the Delta Dam, and opposed the construction of the Suez Canal, which had been proposed by the French. Nevertheless, the road from Cairo to Suez was much improved under ʿAbbās's reign, and he allowed for the construction of the Alexandria-Cairo Railway by the British, who in return assisted him in his dispute with the Ottoman government over the application of the Western-inspired reforms ( Tanzimat) in Egypt. Although he was opposed to the Tanzimat, ʿAbbās showed his loyalty by sending an expeditionary force to assist the Ottomans in the Crimean War (1853); he also abolished the state trade monopolies, which had defied Ottoman treaties with the European powers.

      ʿAbbās's curtailment of government spending benefited the poorer classes, who received tax remissions and suffered less from compulsory labour and conscription into the army. A private man, ʿAbbās lived in isolation in his palace at Banhā, where in July 1854 he was found dead. Although the official report listed his cause of death as apoplexy (stroke), he was believed by many to have been strangled by his servants.

▪ Ṣafavid shah of Persia

Introduction

byname  ʿAbbās the Great  

born Jan. 27, 1571

died Jan. 19, 1629

 shah of Persia from 1588 to 1629, who strengthened the Ṣafavid dynasty by expelling Ottoman (Ottoman Empire) and Uzbek troops from Persian soil and by creating a standing army. He also made Eṣfahān the capital of Persia and fostered commerce and the arts, so that Persian artistic achievement reached a high point in his reign.

Life

      The third son of Solṭān Moḥammad Shah, ʿAbbās came to the throne in October 1588, at a critical moment in the fortunes of the Ṣafavid dynasty. The weak rule of his semiblind father had allowed usurpation by the amīrs, or chiefs, of the Turkmen tribes, who had brought the Ṣafavid to power and still constituted the backbone of Ṣafavid military strength. Moreover, the intertribal factionalism of these Turkmens (known as Kizilbash [Red Heads] because of the distinctive red headgear that they had adopted to mark their adherence to the Ṣafavids) had so weakened the state that its traditional enemies, the Ottoman Turks to the west and the Uzbeks to the east, had been able to make large inroads into Persian territory.

      Shah ʿAbbās thus had two immediate tasks: to reassert the authority of the monarchy and to expel Ottoman and Uzbek troops from Persian soil. Because he was unable to fight a war on two fronts simultaneously, in 1589–90 he signed a peace treaty with the Ottomans, thus freeing himself for an offensive against the Uzbeks. By the treaty, large areas in west and northwest Persia were ceded to the Ottomans. Despite the breathing space thus gained, ʿAbbās for 10 years was unable to launch a major offensive against the Uzbeks, and Iran suffered further loss of territory both to the Uzbeks and to the Mughals of India.

      The delay was caused by ʿAbbās' decision to create a standing army—a concept novel to Ṣafavid kings, who traditionally levied armies in time of need from the tribal cavalry. The creation of a standing army immediately caused a budgetary problem, because the old tribal cavalry had been paid from the revenues of the provinces governed by Kizilbash chiefs. ʿAbbās solved the problem in the short term by bringing a number of these provinces directly under the control of the Shah; the taxes in these new “crown” provinces were remitted to the royal treasury. In the long run the inevitable result of this policy, the reduction in the numbers of Kizilbash troops, seriously weakened the country's military strength.

      The new standing army was composed mainly of Georgians, Armenians, and Circassians (who had been brought to Persia as prisoners during the reign of ʿAbbās' grandfather) and their descendants. After their conversion to Islām, they were trained for service either in the army or in the administration of the state or the royal household. Shah ʿAbbās felt that he could rely on the loyalty of these ghulāms (“slaves”) of the shah, as they were known, and he used them to counterbalance the influence of the Kizilbash, whom he distrusted. Ghulāms soon rose to high office and were appointed governors of crown provinces.

      Eventually, ʿAbbās was able to take the offensive against his external foes. In 1598 he inflicted a major defeat on the Uzbeks and regained control of Khorāsān. From 1602 onward he conducted a series of successful campaigns against the Ottomans and recovered the territory lost to them.

      After his great victory over the Uzbeks, ʿAbbās transferred the capital from Kazvin to Eṣfahān. Under his guidance, Eṣfahān rapidly became one of the most beautiful cities in the world. He adorned the city with many mosques and theological colleges and constructed numerous caravansaries and public baths. He laid out the city with spacious boulevards and a splendid square. The Shah's building energies were not confined to Eṣfahān; the extension and restoration of the famous shrine at Meshed and the construction, along the swampy littoral of the Caspian Sea, of the celebrated stone causeway, designed to give access to his favourite winter retreats, were among his most notable achievements.

      To Eṣfahān came ambassadors from European countries, merchants seeking to establish trade relations, representatives of foreign monastic orders seeking permission to found convents at Eṣfahān and elsewhere, and gentlemen of fortune, such as the brothers Sir Anthony and Sir Robert Sherley—the former an adventurer, the latter a loyal servant of the Shah who distinguished himself in the wars against the Ottomans. The reign of Shah ʿAbbās was a period of intense commercial and diplomatic activity, and, in the Persian Gulf, the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the English strove to make themselves masters of trade there and in the Indian Ocean.

      ʿAbbās' reign also marks a peak of Persian artistic achievement. Under his patronage, carpet weaving became a major industry, and fine Persian rugs began to appear in the homes of wealthy European burghers. Another profitable export was textiles, which included brocades and damasks of unparalleled richness. The production and sale of silk was made a monopoly of the crown. In the illumination of manuscripts, bookbinding, and ceramics, the work of the period of ʿAbbās is without equal; in painting it is among the most notable in Persian history.

Assessment

      Shah ʿAbbās ruled with a passionate zeal for justice and the welfare of his subjects. He frequented meeting places of the ordinary people in order to learn of extortion and oppression on the part of his officials; his punishment of corrupt officials was swift. He showed unusual religious tolerance, granting privileges to many Christian groups.

      The dark side of his character was reserved for his own sons and members of his own family. The experiences of his youth, when he was marked for execution by his uncle, Shah Esmāʿīl II, had left him with a morbid fear of conspiracy. Originally, he followed the practice of his predecessors in appointing the princes of the blood royal as provincial governors, but after a series of revolts and intrigues in favour of his sons, the royal princes were confined to the harem, where their only companions were women and eunuchs. As his obsessive fear of assassination increased, ʿAbbās began to put to death or to blind any member of the royal family who caused him anxiety in this regard. In this way, one son was executed (an act that caused ʿAbbās bitter remorse) and two were blinded, and his father and brothers were blinded and imprisoned. ʿAbbās died without an heir capable of succeeding him.

      Though ʿAbbās possessed great stature as a monarch—even in an age notable for its outstanding rulers—his great achievement in first saving the Ṣafavid Empire from collapse and then raising it to new heights of splendour is marred by his treatment of his own family and the fact that his reforms contained within them the seeds of the future decay of both dynasty and state.

Roger M. Savory

Additional Reading

L.L. Bellan, Chah ʿAbbās I: sa vie, son histoire (1932), the only biography of Shah ʿAbbās I in any European language—generally accurate; R.M. Savory, “ ʿAbbās I” in the Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., vol. 1, pp. 7–8 (1960); for general background to the period of Shah ʿAbbās, the reader is referred to: J. Chardin, Voyages du Chevalier Chardin, 4th ed., 4 vol. (1811); Sir John Malcom, The History of Persia from the Early Period to the Present Time, 2 vol. (1815); and V. Minorsky, Tadhkirat al-Mulūk (1943), especially the introduction, commentary, and appendixes.

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