Zoos Look to the 21st Century

▪ 1994

Introduction

by Lester E. Fisher

      The role of the zoo has undergone several important changes over the centuries, but in the past 25 years critical changes have taken place that could affect the very survival of dozens of species of animals on Earth.

      More than 2,000 years ago, Chinese rulers kept wild animals in private collections as part of their Garden of Intelligence. Egyptian pharaohs retained wild animals presented to them as gifts from subjects throughout Africa. For more than 400 years, European rulers kept wildlife in private collections.

      The earliest European zoo, the collection at Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, was started in 1752; it is the oldest zoo in continuous operation. Collections in Madrid (1775), Paris (1793), and London (1828) followed. Philadelphia organized a zoological society in 1856, and its zoological gardens opened in 1874. Chicago's Lincoln Park Zoo received a pair of swans from the Central Park Zoo in New York and began its operations in 1868. The animal collections were typically organized in park settings; hence the name zoological gardens. The primary role of the zoo from the mid-1800s to the mid-1900s was to afford its visitors a recreational opportunity to view interesting and unusual animals from around the world.

The Changing Role of Zoos.

      Most wild animals were housed in small barred enclosures built more for the public's safety than for the animals' comfort. Today in Bern, Switz., one can still see the deep bear pit that has housed European brown bears for several hundred years. It was not until the turn of the century that the exhibition of wild animals changed significantly. Carl Hagenbeck of Hamburg, Germany, created the first large, open African plains scene using moats for part of the enclosure barriers.

      Following Hagenbeck's revolutionary model, many zoos began to eliminate barred enclosures. Several excellent examples of exhibits inspired by the early work of Hagenbeck can be seen today at the Denver (Colo.) Zoo and Chicago's Brookfield Zoo, where, in the 1930s, the first attempts were made in the United States to create visually interesting backdrops for the animals by using realistic artificial rock work.

      For health reasons some zoos utilized tile and cement cages with glass to replace their barred enclosures. Although effective from a veterinary standpoint, these resulted in an antiseptic environment for the animals. As zoo veterinarians became better able to control the internal parasites and bacterial infections affecting captive wild animals, more appropriate cage furnishings were developed as well.

      By the 1960s many zoos had built "naturalistic" moated exhibits for their hoofed animals, allowing the public an unobstructed view. Similarly, at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C., piano wire retainers were used for indoor bird exhibits, providing a relatively unobstructed view of the birds and enabling visitors to hear their songs. The enclosures could also be heavily planted to provide live green backgrounds in the avian habitats.

      Even with all the visual exhibition improvements, however, the emphasis of public zoos remained on exhibition of wildlife. The next developmental phase, which began in the late 1960s, focused on conservation of wildlife and natural habitats. Discussions began in earnest when a voluntary ban on importing young orangutans was instituted in U.S. zoos in 1968. Zoo directors sought to reduce the capture of orangutans in Indonesia, which was typically accomplished through the killing of the mothers in order to secure their babies. Federal legislation in the 1970s provided further controls over the health and captive breeding of many species.

      In the late 1970s new emphasis began to be placed on the educational component of zoos. The Philadelphia and New York zoos have had small science components for over 50 years, but science and research staffs in other zoos have become commonplace only in the past decade or so.

      Today there are over 1,000 organized zoos and as many as 10,000 animal collections in the world. Broadly, the current objectives of the zoo community can be summarized as follows: increasing awareness of the vital need for conservation; expanding scientific knowledge to benefit conservation programs worldwide; supporting the preservation of endangered species in the wild as well as in zoos through managed, cooperative breeding programs; and supporting further field work and other research projects in conservation of natural habitats, biotypes, and ecosystems.

      In short, zoos are using their unique position to heighten public and political awareness of the interdependence of all life elements on this planet.

Zoos Working Together.

      Scientists and administrators from institutions around the world are increasing their cooperative efforts as well. The American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums expanded its conservation activities with the development in 1981 of a Species Survival Plan (SSP) program to manage cooperative captive breeding programs for 72 different species at 150 zoos. Examples of animals represented in SSPs are the Bali mynah, the California condor, the lowland gorilla, Grevy's zebra, and Dumeril's boa. As a direct result of a few early SSP programs, the nene goose has been reestablished in Hawaii, the Arabian oryx in Oman, the golden lion tamarin in Brazil, and Père David's deer in China. Some 200 species are to be included in the SSP program by the year 2000.

      Current aids to national and international breeding programs now include the International Species Inventory System, the International Zoo Yearbook species studbook, and various computer programs designed to manage captive populations and create statistical models to predict population viability. Providing adequate and appropriate space for captive specimens is also a concern. Cooperative population management, however, entails real risks of degeneration of the wild population that can take place over hundreds of years because of the increasing domesticity of the wild population and the loss of genetic variability.

      New tools for captive reproduction, such as artificial insemination, cryopreservation, and biotechnology, are being developed. Many species of birds, including cranes and the California condor, are being successfully inseminated artificially. The collection and freezing of both ova and sperm of all animals is now regularly taking place, and studies continue on appropriate materials for enhancing storage and extenders for use of these gametes. The Cincinnati (Ohio) Zoo is a pioneer in cryopreservation and has already established a "frozen zoo."

Reaching out to the Public.

      Now regarded as a key element in furthering the goals of conservation, the educational component of the zoo's activities is growing apace. Professional educators are prominent members of the staff at most collections in the U.S., the United Kingdom, and Western Europe. Education programs serve visitors on-site and provide access to zoos through community outreach efforts. Teacher workshops are regularly held to incorporate zoo education programs into regular school curricula, and zoo experts work closely with the science faculties of most local school systems. Trained volunteers also work with zoo staff to expand the quality and quantity of education programs. Volunteers provide the manpower essential for zoos to respond to the needs of visitors numbering up to seven million a year in some cases.

      Field trips to the zoo have always been a popular part of the school year, but now zoo visits are often part of the biology curriculum, directly tied to classroom studies. Many zoos maintain specialized libraries in the biological sciences and sponsor programs of lectures and audiovisual presentations by zoo staff that help promote conservation awareness in the community. Finally, in the area of community outreach, "traveling zoos" fill a unique niche. The first such program was originated in Chicago in the 1950s by zoo director and TV naturalist Marlin Perkins and took animals—and the conservation message—to hospitals, senior centres, nursing homes, schools, and and a variety of community recreation programs.

The Ethical Dimension.

      Even though most people throughout the world enjoy and support zoos, questions are being raised about the role of zoos and the need for a zoo today. Concern for animal rights—sometimes quite adamant—seems to be supplanting the animal welfare work of the humane societies. Beyond concerns about vivisection—the experimental use of animals by the biomedical community—which has been an issue for more than 75 years, questions are now also being raised about keeping wild animals. Some oppose the zoo as an institution, believing that wildlife should remain in a natural habitat and not be made to live in captivity.

      Certainly, not all zoos have housed animals in an exemplary fashion. In some Third World countries there are zoos that are not up to standard, usually because of financial or cultural reasons; some also lack professionally trained employees. The International Union of Directors of Zoological Gardens has offered to assist zoos worldwide in efforts to upgrade facilities. In the past, roadside collections of wild animals along the U.S. highway systems often were not properly managed but, happily, state and national laws are helping make the roadside zoo disappear as a tourist attraction. The U.S. Department of Agriculture has now been charged with approving such facilities.

Redefining the Zoo.

      Today even the name "zoo" has been called into question. The National Zoo in Washington now prefers to call itself a biopark, the better to reflect its role in interpreting the animals and plants it exhibits. The New York Zoological Society has changed its name to NYZS/The Wildlife Conservation Society and calls its borough zoos "wildlife parks" to convey the organization's conservation mission. Other institutions will surely follow in an effort to create broader awareness of the new role of zoos in the 21st century. Regardless of the name, those who place wild animals in a captive state have a moral and ethical responsibility to provide the best care possible. This awareness, as well as responsive programs in education, conservation, and science, strongly enhances the original recreational role of zoos such that the effectiveness and relevance of zoos will continue to grow in the coming years.

Lester E. Fisher, D.V.M., is Director Emeritus of the Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago.

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