Korean language

Official language of North Korea and South Korea, spoken by more than 75 million people, including substantial communities of ethnic Koreans living elsewhere.

Korean is not closely related to any other language, though a distant genetic kinship to Japanese is now thought probable by some scholars, and an even more remote relationship to the Altaic languages is possible. Korean was written with Chinese characters to stand in various ways for Korean meanings and sounds as early as the 12th century, though substantial documentation is not evident until the invention of a unique phonetic script for it in 1443. This script, now called Hangul, represents syllables by arranging simple symbols for each phoneme into a square form like that of a Chinese character. Grammatically, Korean has a basic subject-object-verb word order and places modifiers before the elements they modify.

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Introduction

      language spoken by more than 72 million people, of whom 45 million live in South Korea and 24 million in North Korea. There are more than 2 million speakers in China, more than 700,000 in the United States, and somewhat fewer in Japan. More than 200,000 Koreans live in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Korean is the official language of both South Korea (Republic of Korea) and North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea). The two Koreas differ in minor matters of spelling, alphabetization, and vocabulary choice (including the names of the letters), but both essentially endorse the unified standards proposed by the Korean Language Society in 1933.

Linguistic history and writing systems

General considerations

      While much is known about Middle Korean, the language spoken in the 15th century (when the script was invented), information about the language before that time is limited. Several hundred words of early Middle Korean were written with phonograms in the vocabularies compiled by the Chinese as far back as 1103. A still earlier form of the language, sometimes called Old Korean, has been inferred from place-names and from the 25 poems (called hyangga) that were composed as early as the 10th century and reflect the language of the Silla kingdom. Written with Chinese characters used in various ways to stand for Korean meanings and sounds, the poems are difficult to decipher, and there is no consensus on the interpretation of the content.

      Nor is there general agreement on the relationship of Korean to other languages. The most likely relationships proposed are to Japanese and to the languages of the Altaic (Altaic languages) group: Turkic, Mongolian, and especially Tungus (-Manchu-Jurchen).

Writing and transcriptions

 When Korean words are cited in English and other languages they are transcribed in a variety of ways, as can be seen from the spellings seen for a popular Korean surname: I, Yi, Lee, Li, Ree, Ri, Rhee, Rie, Ni, and so on. For English speakers the most popular transcription is that of the McCune-Reischauer system, which writes words more or less as they sound to the American ear. Despite its clumsiness, McCune-Reischauer is the system used in this description, and following that system the common surname is written Yi; it sounds like the English name of the letter e. In citing sentences, many linguists prefer the Yale romanization, which more accurately reflects the Korean orthography and avoids the need for diacritics to mark vowel distinctions. For a comparison of the two systems, see the Table—>.

      The writing system dates from 1443, and for many years it was known as Ŏnmun ‘vernacular script,' though in South Korea it is now called Hangul (han'gŭl; or Hankul in the Yale romanization) and in North Korea Chosŏn kŭl(tcha), Chosŏn mun(tcha), or just Chosŏn mal ‘Korean.' Very simple symbols are provided for each of the phonemes. Words can be spelled by putting these symbols one after another, as most writing systems do, but Koreans have preferred to group the symbols into square blocks like Chinese characters. The first element in the block is the initial consonant; if the syllable begins with a vowel, a small circle serves as a zero initial. What follows, either to the left or below (or both) is the vowel nucleus, which may be simple or complex (originally a diphthong or triphthong). An optional final element at the bottom (called patch'im) writes a final consonant or a cluster of two consonants. The 15th-century script had a few additional consonant letters that became obsolete in the following centuries and an additional vowel distinction that survived in the spellings until 1933; that vowel is usually transcribed as ă. On Cheju Island, where the distinction is maintained, the phoneme is pronounced [ɔ], very close to the modern Seoul version of the vowel transcribed ŏ, which in many parts of the country is still pronounced [ə]. That accounts for the first vowel of the usual spelling Seoul (= Sŏul), based on a French system of romanization, and for the use of the letter e to write ŏ in the Yale system.

      The earlier language had a distinctive musical accent. In the far south and the northeast, the accent is still maintained as distinctions of pitch, vowel length, or a combination of the two. In the 15th century, low-pitched syllables were left unmarked but a dot was placed to the left of the high-pitched syllables and a double dot (like a colon) was put beside syllables that rose from low to high. The rising accent was maintained as vowel length in central Korea after the other distinctions eroded, but it, too, is vanishing in modern Seoul, even in initial syllables, where it has persisted longest. Like French, Seoul Korean no longer uses accent to distinguish words. The few apparent exceptions are due to intonation: (intonation) nu-ga wassŏ (spoken with a rising pitch) ‘Did someone come?', nu-ga wassŏ (spoken with a falling pitch) ‘Who came?'.

      Koreans began putting spaces between words in 1896. As in English, judgment varies on what constitutes a word rather than a phrase. Earlier, Koreans wrote syllables as distinct blocks but failed to separate words. That was the Chinese tradition, which is still alive in Japan, where the mixture of kanji (Chinese (Chinese languages) characters) and kana (syllabic symbols based on kanji) helps the eye detect phrase breaks. The Chinese comma and period (a hollow dot) are commonly used, and modern punctuation marks have been taken from English.

      Korean borrowed many words from Classical Chinese, including most technical terms and about 10 percent of the basic nouns, such as san ‘mountain' and kang ‘river.' The borrowed words are sometimes written in Chinese characters, though that practice is increasingly avoided except when the characters are used as aids in explaining technical terms.

      Korean spelling is complicated. Words are usually written morphophonemically rather than phonemically, so that a given element is seen in a constant form, even though its pronunciation may vary when it is joined with other elements. For example, the word for ‘price' is always spelled kaps though it is pronounced /kap/ in isolation and /kam/ in kaps-man ‘just the price.' See Linguistic characteristics: Assimilations (Korean language). From the 15th century on there has been a steady trend toward ignoring predictable alternants.

Digraphs and separators

      All transcriptions of Korean include digraphs of one kind or another and use separators to distinguish a string of two letters in their separate values from their single value as a digraph. When no other mark (such as a hyphen or space) is in order, the McCune-Reischauer system uses the apostrophe to distinguish such pairs as hangŏ (= hang-ŏ) ‘resistance' and han'gŏ (= han-gŏ, usually pronounced as if hang-gŏ) ‘a cloistered life.'

Linguistic characteristics

Vowels (vowel)

      The vowel nucleus consists of a simple vowel, which may be preceded by y or w. The McCune-Reischauer romanization puts a breve (˘) over the letters u and o to distinguish the originally unrounded vowels [ɨ] and [ə] (= Seoul [ɔ]) from their rounded counterparts and [o]. (Unrounded vowels are said with a tight smile; rounded vowels with pursed lips.) The Yale romanization uses the letter u for the unrounded [ɨ] and writes as wu but encourages the omission of the w after p, ph (= p'), pp, m, and y, where the rounding has become nondistinctive in modern Korean. The front vowels transcribed as e = [e], and ae = [ε] or [æ] were originally diphthongs, as shown by the complex Hangul symbols reflected in the ey and ay of the Yale romanization. The vowel ae is no longer kept distinct from e in southern Korea and the distinction is virtually lost in modern Seoul, though it is maintained in the spellings. Another old diphthong, originally [oy], is transcribed oe (Yale oy) and sometimes pronounced as a front rounded vowel [ö], though it commonly sounds the same as the less common diphthong we, which is often simplified to just e; the surname Ch'oe may be said as if spelled Ch'we or Ch'e. The old diphthong [uy] became modern wi [wi] and is so pronounced by most speakers, but some people use a front rounded vowel [ü]. The old diphthong ŭi [ɨy], into which ăe [əy] merged, was largely replaced by [ɨ] (initially) or , but it is maintained in spelling certain words of Chinese origin such as ŭiŭi [ɨ:i] ‘meaning' and in writing the particle -ŭi [e] ‘of' (but not the homonymous particle -e ‘to' or ‘in'). The older version as a diphthong has regained popularity in modern Seoul in words such as ŭija ‘chair' (said as three syllables), probably as a result of “reading” pronunciations.

Consonants (consonant)

      When they are initial, the simple stops p, t, and k are pronounced much as in English (pie, tie, kite), with light aspiration. When final, they are cut off with no release, as in one way of saying English “Up! Out! Back!”. The affricate ch occurs in the word chip ‘house,' which is pronounced with a sound intermediate between English chip and cheap; some speakers, especially before the back vowels, pronounce the affricate as a nonpalatalized [ts], and that is thought to have been its 15th-century pronunciation. Between voiced sounds (which include the vowels and y, w, m, n, ng, l, and r), the stops acquire voicing, and that feature is noted in the McCune-Reischauer romanization (but not in the Hangul spelling or the Yale romanization): ip ‘mouth' but ib-e ‘in the mouth,' mat ‘firstborn' but mad-adŭl ‘eldest son,' ak ‘evil' but ag-in ‘evil person.' Final -p sometimes represents a basic p' (ap ‘front' but ap'-e ‘in front') or ps [pss] (kap ‘price' but kaps-ŭl ‘the price [as object]'). A final t sometimes represents a basic t' (mit ‘bottom' but mit'-e ‘at the bottom'), j (nat ‘daytime' but naj-e ‘in the daytime'), or ch' (kkot ‘flower' but kkoch'-ida ‘it's a flower'); more often, however, a final t represents a basic s (ot ‘garment' but os-ŭl ‘the garment [as object]'). Some speakers regularize the basic forms of nouns (but not verb stems) so that for them the nonfinal t always represents basic s; they say pas-ey for the standard pat'-ey ‘in the field.' The single liquid phoneme has two predictable pronunciations: a clear (and sometimes palatalized) lateral [l] when it is at the end of a syllable or doubled [-l:l-], otherwise (and also before h) the flap [r]. The McCune-Reischauer transcription writes l or r in accordance with the pronunciation, which is ignored by the Hangul spelling and the Yale romanization: il ‘one' but ir-wŏn ‘one Wŏn,' nal ‘day' and nal-lo ‘by the day' but nar-e ‘on the day.' There are problems involving initial r and n that are reflected in newspaper references to “President Roh (pronounced No).” The Korean language borrowed some Chinese words beginning with a liquid ([l] in Chinese), and Koreans tried to pronounce them with an r, but they were generally successful only when the element was not initial in a word; when the liquid was initial they used an n instead. The second syllable of toro ‘street' is the same element as the first syllable of nosang ‘on the street' (which is spelled with an n- in South Korea but with an r- in North Korea). There is an added complication: in the south ny- and ni- (whether from original n- or from r-) dropped the nasal, and that is when the common surname borrowed from Chinese Lĭ became Yi. The name is still pronounced [ni] in parts of North Korea, though the reading pronunciation [ri] has spread in P'yŏngyang since 1945. In modern times, loanwords from English, Japanese, and Russian have brought in an initial [r], and that is usually pronounced as a flap.

Assimilations

      The spoken syllables are fairly simple in structure. Each ends either in a vowel or in one of the voiced consonants p, t, k, m, n, ng, or l. When two syllables are put together, various changes may take place where they join. When a syllable that ends in a stop is followed by one that begins with a nasal, the stop assimilates: chip ‘house' + -man ‘only' sounds just like chim ‘burden' + -man [čimman], and kung-min can mean either ‘the people of the nation' (when the first syllable is kuk- ‘nation') or ‘the poor people' (when the first syllable is kung- ‘poor'). Hangul spelling distinguishes such pairs by writing the basic forms. Before a velar (k, k', kk), the dental n is usually pronounced like the velar ng so that kan'go ‘hardship' sounds like kanggo ‘stable,' but that assimilation is ignored in both the spelling and the transcriptions. Both -n + l- and -l + n- are pronounced like -l + l-, so for the sound [-l:l-] one must know what is in the word to decide which of the three Hangul spellings to use.

Aspirated and reinforced consonants

      English makes a two-way distinction of voiceless and voiced stops (pip, bib; tat, dad; kick, gig). In Korean, voicing is automatic, so that and form a single phoneme and are written with the same Hangul letter. Korean distinguishes two other kinds of obstruents (stops, or fricatives): heavily aspirated p', t', k', and ch' and reinforced (tense) pp, tt, kk, and tch. The standard language also has a tense sibilant ss in contrast with the lax (and somewhat aspirated) s, but many speakers maintain this distinction only at the beginning of a word or ignore it entirely, despite the spelling. Both kinds of s are palatalized before i or y, and the lax s sounds like English sh, so that the Silla kingdom is sometimes referred to as the Shilla kingdom. (The Yale transcription for this name, Sinla, shows the Hangul spelling.) The reinforced consonants, now written as geminates (duplicate letters), probably became distinctive through the reduction of clusters, such as Middle Korean st, pst, and pt, and in many words the heavily aspirated consonants seem to go back to earlier clusters with h or k. The clusters, in turn, were reduced from disyllabic strings by syncope (omitting the vowel). The simple aspirate h is often murmured or dropped between voiced sounds: si(h)ŏm ‘test,' annyŏng (h)ase-yo ‘How are you?' That accounts for the [r] in words like sir(h)ŏm ‘experiment.' Before i the velar nasal is often reduced to no more than nasality: annyŏng (h)i kase-yo ‘Good-bye to you who are leaving' is usually pronounced [annyɔĩgas].

Reinforcement

      When p, t, k, ch, or s is preceded by a stop, it is automatically pronounced as reinforced (tense), but that sound feature is ignored both in the Hangul spellings and in the transcriptions: ip-to ‘the mouth too' = /iptto/, ot-kwa ‘with the garment' = /o(t)kkwa/, kuk-poda ‘than the soup' = /kukppoda/, hakcha ‘scholar' = /haktcha/, iksal ‘joke' = /ikssal/. After the adnominal ending -(ŭ)l there is reinforcement unless a pause is inserted: pol kot ‘the place to look' sounds just like pol kkot ‘the flower to look at,' but they are spelled and transcribed differently. Other cases of reinforcement are less predictable and are variously treated or neglected in spellings and transcriptions. In some cases the reinforcement goes back to the Middle Korean particle s ‘of.'

Liaison

      When a Korean syllable that begins with a vowel is added to a syllable that ends in a consonant, that coda moves over to fill the empty onset slot of the second syllable: chip ‘house' + -e ‘to' is romanized chib-e but pronounced /či-be/, pap ‘rice/meal' + -ŭl (direct object) is spelled pab-ŭl but said as /pa-bŭl/, and tong-an ‘interval' is heard as /to-ŋan/.

Grammar

      Korean sentences are very similar to those of Japanese (Japanese language), though the words sound quite different. Modifiers always precede what they modify. The unmarked order is subject + indirect object + direct object + predicate. Only the predicate is essential, and other information may be omitted. Actions are expressed by processive predicates (= verbs), such as mŏgŏ ‘[someone] eats [it]' and anja ‘[someone] sits,' characteristics by descriptive predicates (= adjectives), such as tŏwŏ ‘[it] is warm' and cho(h)a ‘[it] is good' (or ‘I like it'). A special kind of descriptive, the closely attached copula (linking verb), predicates nouns, as in ton–i(y)a ‘it's money' and ch'a–'ya ‘it's tea.' The descriptive predicates can only make statements or questions, but the processive predicates can also make commands and suggestions, so that (depending on intonation) anja can mean ‘I sit,' ‘Will you sit?', ‘Sit!', or ‘Let's sit!'; tŏwŏ means only ‘It's warm' or ‘Is it warm?'. The predicate is an inflected form consisting of a stem + an ending: mŏgŏ consists of the stem mŏk- ‘eat' and the infinitive ending -ŏ, which takes the shape -a when the preceding vowel is a or o, as in anja from anch- ‘sit' and cho(h)a from choh- ‘be good/liked,' and also (when the infinitive is sentence-final) in the copula i(y)a from the stem i-. A final particle -yo is often added to the infinitive to show friendly politeness, as in mŏgŏ-yo and cho(h)a-yo; the copula takes the shape ie-yo or '(y)e-yo, as in ton–ie-yo and ch'a–'e-yo. Nouns attach particles to show their roles in the sentence. The subject is marked by -i after a consonant or -ga after a vowel (but in the 15th century -y was used), and the direct object is marked by -ŭl after a consonant or -lŭl after a vowel. These case markers are often omitted or are masked by particles of focus such as -do and -to ‘also, even,' used to highlight a word, and -ŭn (after a consonant) or -nŭn (after a vowel), used to background a topic. The indirect object is usually marked by (h)ant'e or (less casually) ege, as in ŏmŏni-ga ttar-(h)ant'e ton-ŭl chue ‘The mother gives the daughter money.'

      The negative copula expression converts [noun] + i- into [noun]-i/-ga + ani–(i)-, as in ton-i ani–'ya ‘It isn't money' and ch'a-ga ani–'ya ‘It isn't tea.' In short sentences verbs and adjectives can be negated by preposing the adverb an(i), as in an mŏgŏ ‘I won't eat it,' but a more versatile device permits negation of even long sentences by converting the verb to an inflected form that ends in -ji or -chi (pronounced ch'i), followed by the auxiliary anh- ‘not do/be,' a contraction from ani ha- (the negative adverb + the dummy verb ha- ‘do/be'): mŏkchi an(h)a ‘I don't eat it,' chuji an(h)a ‘I don't give it,' choch'i an(h)a ‘It's no good.' Predicates can be conjoined with endings meaning ‘and' (-go/-ko, -ŏ/-a–sŏ) or ‘but' (-na/-ŭna, -ji/-chi–man) and subordinated with endings that mean ‘when/if' (such as -myŏn/-ŭmyŏn) or ‘even if' (-ŏ/a–do).

      The Korean language also has endings that adnominalize a predicate (make it modify a following noun), operating in the same manner as an English relative clause: uri-(h)ant'e ton-ŭl chun saram ‘the people who gave us the money,' saram-i uri-(h)ant'e chun ton ‘the money the people gave us,' saram-i ton-ŭl chun uri ‘we to whom people gave money,' saram-i uri-(h)ant'e ton-ŭl chun chib-i man(h)a ‘There are many houses where people gave us money.' Often the predicate marks the subject as someone special (“you” or “the teacher”) by inserting the honorific marker -(ŭ)si-, reduced to -(ŭ)sy- before a vowel as in chusyŏ-yo. There are also ways to mark the predicate for tense and aspect.

      The examples given here are all in an informal style, but there are several other styles. The formal style marks a statement with -(sŭ)mnida, a question with -(sŭ)mnikka, a command with -(sŭp)sio, and a suggestion with -(sŭ)psida. The forms in the plain/impersonal style are -da (or processive -(nŭ)nda) for statements, -na or -ni or -(nŭ)n-ya/-ka for questions, -(ŭ)ra or infinitive + -ra for commands, and -ja/-cha for suggestions. Instead of -ŏ(-yo) Koreans sometimes use -ji(-yo) to assert the speaker's involvement.

Samuel E. Martin

Additional Reading

Samuel E. Martin, A Reference Grammar of Korean (1992), provides a comprehensive description. Ho-min Sohn, Korean (1994), is a detailed grammar. Textbooks include Fred Lukoff, Spoken Korean, 2 vol. (1945–47); B. Nam Park, Korean Basic Course, 2 vol. (1968–69); Samuel E. Martin and Young-sook C. Lee, Beginning Korean (1969, reissued 1986); and two series of textbooks published by Korea University (Seoul): Han'gugŏ, 4 vol. in various editions (1989–91); and Han'gugŏ Hoehwa, 4 vol. in various editions (1991–93). Informative articles may be found in The Korean Language (1983), edited by the Korean National Commission for UNESCO. The writing system is thoroughly discussed in Young-key Kim-Renaud (ed.), The Korean Alphabet: Its History and Structure (1997). Transcription is discussed in G.M. McCune and E.O. Reischauer, “The Romanization of the Korean Language,” Transactions of the Korea Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 29:1–55 (1939), with an abbreviated account in the same journal, “Tables of the McCune-Reischauer System for the Romanization of Korean,” 38:121–129 (1961); and in Robert Austerlitz et al., “Report of the Workshop Conference on Korean Romanization,” Korean Studies, 4:111–125 (1980). S. Robert Ramsey, Accent and Morphology in Korean Dialects (1978), is a valuable explanation of accentual patterns. The history of the language is chronicled in Ki-mun Yi, Kugŏsa kaesŏl, 2nd ed. (1972), also available in a German edition, Geschichte der koreanischen Sprache, trans. and ed. by Bruno Lewin (1977). The prehistory is reviewed in Ho-min Sohn, "The State of the Art in the Historical-Comparative Studies of Japanese and Korean,” Korean Studies, 4:29–50 (1980); and further explored in three works by Samuel E. Martin: “Morphological Clues to the Relationships of Japanese and Korean,” in Philip Baldi (ed.), Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology (1990), pp. 483–509, “On the Prehistory of Korean Grammar: Verb Forms,” Korean Studies, 19:139–150 (1995), and Consonant Lenition in Korean and the Macro-Altaic Question (1996). The authoritative dictionary is Uri mal kŭn sajŏn, 4 vol. (1991–92), compiled by Han'gŭl Hakhoe (Korean Language Research Society). Also very useful is the dictionary by Yi Sung-nyŏng (Sung-nyong Lee), Kugŏ taesajŏn, 3 vol. (1960); and the North Korean dictionary Chosŏn mal sajŏn, 6 vol. (1960–62). The recommended Korean-English dictionary is Samuel E. Martin, Yang Ha Lee (Yang-ha Yi), and Sung-un Chang (Sŏng-on Chang), A Korean-English Dictionary (1967). Y.H. Lee and J.W. Kwun (eds.), Minjungsugwan's Pocket English-Korean Dictionary, new rev. ed., 2 vol. (1960), is useful for translating English words.Samuel E. Martin

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