Rocky Mountains

the chief mountain system in North America, extending from central New Mexico to N Alaska. Highest peak, Mount McKinley, 20,300 ft. (6187 m). Also called Rockies.

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or Rockies

Mountain system, western North America.

It extends some 3,000 mi (4,800 km) from the Mexican frontier to the Arctic Ocean, through the western U.S. and Canada. The highest peak in the U.S. Rockies is Mount Elbert in Colorado, at 14,433 ft (4,399 m); in the Canadian Rockies it is Mount Robson in British Columbia, at 12,972 ft (3,954 m). The Continental Divide, located in the mountains, separates rivers flowing to the east and to the west. Wildlife includes grizzly bear, brown bear, elk, bighorn sheep, and cougar. The area is rich in deposits of copper, iron ore, silver, gold, lead, zinc, phosphate, potash, and gypsum. Rocky Mountain, Yellowstone, and Grand Teton national parks in the U.S. are major recreational facilities.

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▪ mountains, North America

Introduction

byname  the Rockies  

 mountain range forming the cordilleran backbone of the great upland system that dominates the western North American (United States) continent. Generally, the ranges included in the Rockies stretch from northern Alberta and British Columbia southward to New Mexico, a distance of some 3,000 miles (4,800 kilometres). In places the system is 300 or more miles wide. Limits are mostly arbitrary, especially in the far northwest, where mountain systems such as the Brooks Range of Alaska are sometimes included. The Rockies are bordered on the east by the Great Plains and on the west by the Interior Plateau and Coast Mountains of Canada and the Columbia Plateau and Basin and Range Province of the United States.

      The Rocky Mountains include at least 100 separate ranges, which are generally divided into four broad groupings: the Canadian Rockies and Northern Rockies of Montana and northeastern Idaho; the Middle Rockies of Wyoming, Utah, and southeastern Idaho; the Southern Rockies, mainly in Colorado and New Mexico; and the Colorado Plateau in the Four Corners region of Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona. These four subdivisions differ from each other in terms of geology (origin, ages, and types of rocks) and physiography (landforms, drainage, and soils), yet they share the physical attributes of high elevations (many peaks exceeding 13,000 feet [4,000 metres]), great local relief (typically 5,000 to 7,000 feet in vertical difference between the base and summit of ranges), shallow soils, considerable mineral wealth, spectacular scenery from past glaciation and volcanic activity, and common trends in climate, biogeography, culture, economy, and exploration.

Physical features

Physiography

 The Canadian Rockies include the Mackenzie (Mackenzie Mountains) and Selwyn mountains of the Yukon and Northwest Territories (sometimes called the Arctic Rockies) and the ranges of western Alberta and eastern British Columbia. The Northern Rockies include the Lewis and Bitterroot ranges of western Montana and northeastern Idaho. These ranges formed along the eastern edge of a region of carbonate sedimentation some 17 miles thick, which had accumulated from the late Precambrian (Precambrian time) to early Mesozoic time (i.e., between about 1 billion and 190 million years ago). This structural depression, known as the Rocky Mountain geosyncline, eventually extended from Alaska to the Gulf of Mexico and became a continuous seaway during the Cretaceous Period (144 to 66.4 million years ago). The ranges of the Canadian and Northern Rockies were created when thick sheets of Paleozoic limestones were thrust eastward over Mesozoic rocks during the mountain-building episode called the Laramide orogeny (65 to 35 million years ago). Some of these thrust sheets have moved 20 to 30 miles to their present positions. The western margin of the Canadian Rockies and Northern Rockies is marked by the Rocky Mountain Trench, a graben (downfaulted, straight, flat-bottomed valley) up to 3,000 feet deep and several miles wide that has been glaciated and partially filled with deposits from glacial meltwaters.

      The Columbia Icefield is situated on the continental divide in the Canadian Rockies at elevations of 10,000 to 13,000 feet above sea level. It includes the large Athabasca Glacier, which is nearly five miles long and about a mile wide. Glaciers (glacier) in this ice field, while continuing to move, are thinning and retreating. The Canadian Rockies are about equally divided between drainage to the east (Atlantic and Arctic oceans) and west (Pacific Ocean).

      The Middle Rockies include the Bighorn (Bighorn Mountains) and Wind River ranges (Wind River Range) in Wyoming, the Wasatch Range of southeastern Idaho and northern Utah, and the Uinta Mountains of northeastern Utah; the Absaroka Range, extending from northwestern Wyoming into Montana, serves as a link between the Northern and Middle Rockies. While the massive deposition of carbonates was occurring in the Canadian and Northern Rockies from the late Precambrian (Precambrian time) to the early Mesozoic, a considerably smaller quantity of clastic sediments was accumulating in the Middle Rockies. Mountain building there resulted from compressional folding and high-angle faulting, except for the low-angle thrust-faulting in southwestern Wyoming and southeastern Idaho. The granitic core of the anticlinal mountains often has been upfaulted, and many ranges are flanked by Paleozoic sedimentary rocks (e.g., shales, siltstones, and sandstones) that have been eroded into hogback ridges. This same mountain-building process is occurring today in the Andes Mountains of South America. Most mountain building in the Middle Rockies occurred during the Laramide Orogeny, but the mountains of the spectacular Teton Range attained their height less than 10 million years ago by moving more than 20,000 vertical feet relative to the floor of Jackson Hole along an east-dipping fault.

      The Bighorn, Wind River, and Uinta ranges all form sharp ridge lines that rise above surrounding basins. The Wind River Range supports a large area of glaciers, including Dinwoody Glacier. These glaciers, however, are retreating fairly rapidly.

      Geologic events in the Middle Rockies strongly influenced the direction of stream courses. A special feature of late Cenozoic time (i.e., the past 10 million years) was the creation of rivers that flowed from basin floors into canyons across adjacent mountains and onto the adjacent plains. This phenomenon resulted from superposition of the streams. The stream courses were initially established in the Late Miocene Epoch (11.2 to 5.3 million years ago), when the basins were largely filled by Tertiary deposits (i.e., those between 1.6 and 66.4 million years old) that locally extended across lower segments of mountain axes. During the subsequent regional excavation of the basin fills—which began about five million years ago—the streams maintained their courses across the mountains and cut deep, transverse canyons.

      The Yellowstone-Absaroka region of northwestern Wyoming is a distinctive subdivision of the Middle Rockies. A large magma chamber beneath the area has filled several times and caused the surface to bulge, only to then empty in a series of volcanic eruptions of basaltic and rhyolitic lava and ash. Three such cycles have occurred in the past two million years, the most recent of which occurred about 600,000 years ago. The magma chamber is currently filling again, and the land surface in Yellowstone is rising or tilting a slight amount each year.

      The Southern Rockies include the Front Range and the Wet and Sangre de Cristo mountains along the eastern slope and the Park, Gore, and Sawatch ranges (Sawatch Range) and the San Juan Mountains along the western slope. The eastern and western ranges are separated by a series of high basins: from north to south they are North Park, the Arkansas River valley, and the San Luis Valley. The Southern Rockies extend northward into southern Wyoming in three prongs: the Laramie and Medicine Bow mountains and the Sierra Madre.

      Only about 5,000 feet of sediment accumulated during middle Mesozoic times (about 200 to 150 million years ago) in the region now occupied by the Southern Rockies. Mountain building in these ranges resulted from compressional folding and high-angle faulting during the Laramide Orogeny, as the Mesozoic sedimentary rocks were arched upward over a massive batholith of crystalline rock. Some 10,000 vertical feet of the sedimentary rocks were then eroded; otherwise the Front Range would be approximately twice its present height. The Southern Rockies experienced less of the low-angle thrust-faulting that characterizes the Canadian and Northern Rockies and the western portions of the Middle Rockies.

      The ranges of the Southern Rockies are higher than those of the Middle or Northern Rockies, with many peaks exceeding elevations of 14,000 feet. Colorado has 53 peaks over this elevation, the highest being Mount Elbert (Elbert, Mount) in the Sawatch Range, which at 14,433 feet (4,399 metres) is the highest point in the Rockies. These ranges were heavily eroded by several episodes of glaciation—the most recent ended about 7,500 years ago, and no active glaciers remain—resulting in spectacular alpine scenery. River valleys have been deepened in the past two million years, first from the direct action of glacier ice and subsequently by glacial meltwaters. Looping, knife-edged moraines occur in most valleys, marking the downslope extent of past glaciations.

      The physiographic province called the Colorado Plateau in southeastern Utah, southwestern Colorado, northern Arizona, and northwestern New Mexico is another high-elevation region of the western United States, although it lacks the history of folding, faulting, and volcanic activity of adjacent regions. The uplifts (uplift) in the Colorado Plateau are not as great as those elsewhere in the Rockies, and therefore less erosion has occurred; Precambrian rocks have been exposed only in the deepest canyons, such as the Grand Canyon.

      The plateau is actually a series of plateaus at different elevations arranged in a stairstep sequence through faulting. The horizontal sedimentary rocks have been dissected by the Green (Green River) and Colorado rivers (Colorado River) and their tributaries into a network of deep canyons. Some of these canyons are deeply entrenched meanders, such as the dramatic Goosenecks section of the San Juan River near Mexican Hat, Utah, where erosion through the canyon walls separating opposite sides of a meandering river loop has created a natural bridge.

      The Grand Canyon of the Colorado River cuts across the southern end of the Kaibab Upwarp in the southern plateau region. The canyon is up to 6,600 feet deep and exposes a remarkable sequence of sedimentary rocks. Weak rock types, such as shale and softer sandstone layers, form low-sloping benches, while more resistant rock types, such as limestone and harder sandstone layers, comprise cliff-forming units. Because of the alternating sequence of weak and resistant rocks in the canyon walls, a cliff-and-bench topography has formed that is typical of much of the Colorado Plateau region. The headward erosion of streams into the plateau surface eventually isolates sections of the plateau into mesas, buttes, monuments, and spires. Bedrock that has been fractured into series of parallel joints can weather into high rock walls known as fins. Subsequent weathering leads to the creation of natural arches. The same weathering processes on cliffs can create niches, which have been exploited by cliff-dwelling Indian cultures in the past.

      Four mountain groups—the La Sal, Henry, Abajo, and Carrizo—are notable. From a central pipelike intrusion reaching deep into the Earth's crust, magma has been injected between layers of sedimentary rock, causing the overlying beds to bulge up in domes (dome) about one mile across. These domes are called laccoliths (laccolith), and each of these mountain massifs is made up of a group of laccoliths.

Soils

      Mountain soils in the Rockies are poorly developed, being extremely thin and young and too deficient in nutrients for most types of agriculture. High-valley soils are sometimes suitable for irrigation, depending on texture, steepness of slopes, length of snow cover, and the presence of trace elements (e.g., selenium) that limit suitability for crop cultivation. Rangeland grazing is a more common pursuit. Soils of the Colorado Plateau also are generally shallow and stony, and they contain a high percentage of salts. In some locales, they can be made fertile if sufficient water is available to flush excess salts.

Climate

      Along the great north-south extent of the mountains, the climate of the Rockies extends from the northern fringe of the subtropical zone in the far south to the Arctic in the far north. In the south, however, the continentality and high elevation of the mountains tend to reduce the impact of latitude. Two vertical zones prevail throughout much of the range. The lower is characterized as cool temperate, with cold winters and relatively cool summers. This zone occurs between elevations of 7,000 and 10,000 feet in the south, with upper and lower limits decreasing proportionally with increasing latitude. The higher zone is alpine and tundralike in character, with severe winter conditions and short, cold summers; in the south the highest peaks may remain snow-covered until August, while in the north many of the high valleys sustain permanent glaciers.

      Precipitation generally increases from south to north, with the north receiving about three times that of the south. In the south the climate tends to be dry, especially in the rain-shadow valleys. The San Luis Valley in Colorado, for example, has a mountain-desert climate and is one of the driest areas of the Rockies. Much of the total annual precipitation in the south falls as snow in winter, although characteristic of the summer are local, sometimes violent, afternoon thunderstorms. The Northern Rockies tend to receive precipitation more evenly throughout the year from Pacific cyclonic storms. Almost everywhere in the Rockies the growing season is short; some places are susceptible to frosts even in summer.

Plant life

      The plant communities of the Rockies vary markedly according to elevation, latitude, and exposure. On the eastern slopes in Colorado and New Mexico, strong winter winds off the arid plains stunt and deform the scattered cedars and piñon pines. The lower elevations at this end of the system are predominantly treeless, except along watercourses, where cottonwoods and other broad-leaved, deciduous species cluster. Sagebrush occurs in valleys and basins as far north as southern Alberta.

      Trees of the middle-elevation montane forest include aspen, yellow pine, piñon pine, and Douglas fir. The subalpine forests comprise western hemlock, lodgepole pine, western red cedar, white spruce, and Engelmann spruce. The tree-line elevation descends as latitude increases, and alpine tundra, characterized by low flowering plants, spans nearly the full length of the range. So-called elfin woodland, consisting primarily of dwarfed willows, occurs in the most northerly mountains. The myriad wildflowers of the forests and high meadows include columbine, bunchberry, larkspur, gentian, and Indian paintbrush.

Animal life

 The fauna of the Rockies is varied and abundant. Among the large mammals emblematic of the rugged backcountry are the black bear, grizzly bear, mountain lion, and wolverine. Bighorn sheep and mountain goats inhabit the high crags in summer and migrate to the lower slopes for the winter months. Members of the deer family, such as the caribou, elk (wapiti), mule deer, and white-tailed deer, also migrate vertically between alpine meadows and subalpine forest cover; the solitary moose frequents northern lakes, streams, and marshy areas, feeding on willow foliage and aquatic plants. Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming is home to one of the largest herds of bison in North America. Wild horses and burros inhabit the surrounding plains, while coyotes roam the lower valleys and along roads and rail routes. Wolves, brought to near extinction by human predation, remain rare but have resurged since 1970 as their importance in the wilderness ecosystem has come to be appreciated. Smaller mammals of the lower elevations include the least chipmunk, red squirrel, Columbian ground squirrel, black-footed ferret, and marmot. The pika dwells on talus slopes, and the prairie dog inhabits the drier valleys and plateaus. Wildlife of the arid southern mountains comprises the pronghorn, jackrabbit, peccary, rattlesnake, and other desert species. Beavers and river otters can be found in watercourses throughout the region. Amphibians include several species of frogs, toads, and salamanders that are indigenous to the region.

      Birdlife is comparably diverse. In summer such raptors as the bald eagle, golden eagle, osprey, peregrine falcon, and turkey vulture nest throughout the range. Several owl species are found, including the great horned owl. Woodland and meadow birds include species of grouse (ruffed, sage, spruce, and blue), ptarmigan, wild turkey, ring-necked pheasant, Clark's nutcracker, gray jay, and Steller's jay. Among wading birds are species of egret, crane, great blue heron, curlew, and avocet. An abundance of waterfowl—such as teal, snipe, numerous duck species, and the endangered trumpeter swan—spend the warm season on mountain lakes. Canada geese and white pelicans also spend a portion of the year in the region. The numerous hot springs of the Rockies provide a winter haven for many birds that would otherwise migrate southward.

      The rainbow trout, while perhaps the most celebrated fish of the region, is largely introduced from California. The arctic grayling is a prominent denizen of high northern lakes. (Native American)

The people

      The human presence in the Rocky Mountains has been dated to between 10,000 and 8,000 BC. American Indian peoples inhabiting the northern mountains in modern times include the Shuswap and Kutenai of British Columbia, the Coeur d'Alene and Nez Percé of Idaho, and the Flathead of Montana. The traditional lands of the Shoshone in Idaho and Wyoming and the Ute in Utah and Colorado extended into the west-central ranges. Southwestern groups include the Navajo, Hopi, and Pueblo. Nomadic Plains Indians who once ranged into the eastern Rockies included the Blackfoot, the Crow, and the Cheyenne.

      Incursions by Europeans began in the Southwest in the 16th century. By the early 19th century, exploration and economic exploitation brought them into contact, and often conflict, with virtually all the indigenous mountain peoples. These encounters, along with shifting food supplies and intertribal territorial wars, generated extensive migration and attrition among some groups. Many Indians now live on the reservations established throughout the region. Although settlement is now widespread throughout most of the Rockies, population is concentrated in urban areas generally located at the base of mountains, along railways, or in river valleys.

The economy

Water resources

      The Rocky Mountains in Canada and the United States are a region of water surplus, where precipitation exceeds losses from evaporation, runoff, and transpiration. The lands on either side of the mountain front, however, experience a water deficit. The people living in these areas have looked to water-storage projects in the Rockies for irrigation, domestic and industrial use, navigation, and hydroelectric power generation, as well as for flood control. Most of the potential sites for large dams already have been utilized, and smaller dams in the headwater regions are now being constructed.

      One of the most ambitious of these projects is in the Colorado Rockies, where a complex network of reservoirs, tunnels, and pipelines diverts water from the western slope of the Front Range to the large urban area centred on Denver along the eastern slope. This scheme, opposed by residents of the range's western slope, is the first in a series of projects extending downstream in the Colorado River system that may eventually utilize the entire flow of the river.

Mineral resources

      Minerals have been of economic significance since the mid-19th century, although worldwide market fluctuations often have caused mine closures. copper, easily the most valuable of the many metallic resources of the Rocky Mountains, has been extracted from large mines in British Columbia, Montana, Utah, and Arizona. The Rockies are more noted for their many underground mines for silver, gold, lead, and zinc, found in British Columbia, Colorado, Montana, Idaho, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. The Rockies also have produced large quantities of molybdenum, beryllium, and uranium.

      Sapphires are mined in Montana, while great reserves of other nonmetallic minerals occur in various places in the mountains. These include phosphate rock, potash, trona, magnesium and lithium salts, Glauber's salt, gypsum, limestone, and dolomite. The large basins between the uplifts of the ranges contain many petroleum and natural gas fields. Alberta, Wyoming, New Mexico, Montana, Colorado, and Utah are all substantial producers, with the Powder River basin of Wyoming proving to be one of the leading regions.

      The Rockies also hold extensive shale deposits containing a solid hydrocarbon material that can be driven off as crude oil by heat treatment. These oil shales (oil shale) occur principally around the Uinta Mountains in Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah. Immobile oil also is located in certain sandstones in various places. These deposits are called bituminous, oil, or tar sands (tar sand). In both cases, the amounts of potential oil are vast, and by the early 21st century these reserves were beginning to be exploited.

      The Rocky Mountains and the adjacent Great Plains to the east contain the Western Hemisphere's most abundant and accessible coal reserves. These consist largely of bituminous, subbituminous, and lignitic deposits and constitute a tremendous energy source. Most of this low-sulfur coal is mined using surface strip-mining techniques and sent to factories and electric-power plants via large trains.

National parks (national park), forests, and recreational areas

 Many of North America's finest national parks, national monuments, and wilderness areas are in the ranges of the Rocky Mountains and in the Colorado Plateau. To these areas of natural beauty have been added such large recreation facilities as the Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, located on either side of Lake Powell in Utah and Arizona, and Flaming Gorge National Recreation Area, in Wyoming and Utah. The area in and around Yellowstone National Park represents one of the largest relatively intact temperate-zone ecosystems on the planet. More than 10,000 hot springs, along with the large populations of elk, bison, and moose and high-quality trout fisheries, draw large numbers of tourists.

      The construction of roads over high mountain passes have made recreational areas more accessible, especially Jasper and Banff national parks in Alberta and Glacier, Yellowstone, Grand Teton, and Rocky Mountain national parks in the United States. An increasing number of the high mountain roads, while closed to automobiles during winter, are used by snowmobile enthusiasts. High-speed highways facilitate long-range trips to the Rocky Mountain region from other sections of North America. Although transcontinental Canadian rail travel has been discontinued, Banff and Jasper national parks can still be reached by rail from the larger cities in Alberta and British Columbia. Small commuter airlines also have increased access to the parks.

      Most of the land in the Rockies has been designated as national or provincial forests (national forest). In the United States the principle of multiple use governs management of these forests, with lumbering, mining, oil and gas drilling, and grazing permitted under federal regulation. The Canadian Rockies produce a large portion of that nation's timber, supporting numerous sawmills and pulp and paper mills. In the United States, by contrast, timber production from the Rockies is small compared with other forested regions, and recreation (skiing, hiking, hunting) is the principal source of revenue in the national forests.

Environmental concerns

      Serious problems have arisen as a result of timber harvesting, grazing, oil exploration, mining, and reservoir operations in the Rockies. logging and oil exploration have been responsible for accelerated slope erosion, both from the operations themselves and from the access roads built to reach them. Erosion has stripped away the often thin soil cover and caused serious silting of streams. Trace quantities of harmful metals have been released into streams and groundwater from mining operations, particularly from the leaching of mill tailings. Reservoir operations have disrupted fisheries by altering the temperature and flow patterns of streams and by disrupting riparian (streamside) vegetation communities. Wildlife habitat has been lost through the development of lands for agriculture and livestock grazing. Thus, the degree to which land in the Rocky Mountains remains natural generally declines as elevation decreases.

Study and exploration (European exploration)

      The Rocky Mountains were one of the last regions in North America to be explored by Europeans, because of the inaccessibility and ruggedness of the terrain. Roman Catholic missionaries worked their way northward from Mexico into New Mexico in the 17th and 18th centuries. In 1776–77 Silvestre Vélez de Escalante (Escalante, Silvestre Vélez de) and his party explored and documented their travels into what is now Utah, reaching almost to the Great Salt Lake. The Scottish explorer Alexander Mackenzie (Mackenzie, Sir Alexander), searching for a river course to the Pacific Ocean from the Canadian prairie, crossed the Rockies (1792–93) at a latitude higher than any other expedition until the early 19th century. The Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1804–06 explored and charted a route up the Missouri River into Montana and thence across Idaho and Oregon to the Pacific. The English explorer and fur trader David Thompson (Thompson, David) explored the headwaters of the Saskatchewan and Columbia rivers in the Canadian Rockies in 1807–11, setting up the first trading posts in that region and producing the first survey of the entire length of the Columbia River.

      Possibly the most remarkable of all western explorations (West, The) were those of Jedediah Smith (Smith, Jedediah) in 1822–31. Following the Missouri River into east-central Montana, Smith first worked his way southward into the Bighorn Basin and thence into southeastern Idaho, northern and southwestern Utah, and southern Nevada, around the Sierra Nevada, and back to the Great Salt Lake across the Great Basin. Also important were the expeditions of John C. Frémont (Frémont, John C) in the 1840s. Frémont followed the North Platte River into Wyoming, went up the Sweetwater River to the south end of the Wind River Range (South Pass), and thence traveled southwestward into Utah. This was an important scientific survey because he charted distances, determined latitudes, longitudes, and elevations, and recorded objectively in some detail what he saw.

      Four great western surveys were organized by the U.S. government following the American Civil War: the survey of the 40th parallel led by Clarence King (King, Clarence) (1867–78), the geologic survey of Nebraska and Wyoming led by Ferdinand Hayden (Hayden, Ferdinand Vandiveer) (1867–78), the 100th-meridian survey led by George Wheeler (1872–79), and the expeditions to the Green and Colorado rivers in Wyoming, Utah, Arizona, and southern Nevada led by John Wesley Powell (Powell, John Wesley) (1871–79). The maps and preliminary observations of these important surveys laid the groundwork for the great mass of scientific research that followed. The Rocky Mountains, with their abundant deposits of fossil fuels, uranium, and other minerals, continue to attract the attention of geologists.

Armand J. Eardley Richard A. Marston

Additional Reading

Two nontechnical, abundantly illustrated descriptions of the Rocky Mountains are William S. Ellis and Dick Durrance II, The Majestic Rocky Mountains (1976); and Bryce S. Walker et al., The Great Divide (1973, reissued 1985), covering the landforms, plant life, and early exploration of the American Rockies. The mountains are also treated in Mel Griffiths and Lynnell Rubright, Colorado: A Geography (1983); and American West, The Magnificent Rockies: Crest of a Continent (1973). Dennis Glick, Mary Carr, and Bert Harting, An Environmental Profile of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (1991), compiles baseline information on the ecological processes and components of the greater Yellowstone ecosystem and discusses how the ecosystem's future is affected by current and proposed resource development plans. David V. Harris and Eugene P. Kiver, The Geologic Story of the National Parks and Monuments, 4th ed. (1985), chapters 8–11, covers the geologic history and special features of U.S. parks and monuments in the northern, middle, and southern Rockies and on the Colorado Plateau. Lawrence M. Ostresh, Jr., Richard A. Marston, and Walter M. Hudson, Wyoming Water Atlas (1990), although specifically about Wyoming water resources, treats issues that are typical throughout the Rocky Mountain region.Richard A. Marston

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