eclipse

—eclipser, n.

/i klips"/, n., v., eclipsed, eclipsing.

n.

1. Astron.

a. the obscuration of the light of the moon by the intervention of the earth between it and the sun (lunar eclipse) or the obscuration of the light of the sun by the intervention of the moon between it and a point on the earth (solar eclipse).

b. a similar phenomenon with respect to any other planet and either its satellite or the sun.

c. the partial or complete interception of the light of one component of a binary star by the other.

2. any obscuration of light.

3. a reduction or loss of splendor, status, reputation, etc.: Scandal caused the eclipse of his career.

v.t.

4. to cause to undergo eclipse: The moon eclipsed the sun.

5. to make less outstanding or important by comparison; surpass: a soprano whose singing eclipsed that of her rivals.

[1250-1300; ME eclips(e), clips < AF, OF eclipse < L eclipsis < Gk ékleipsis, equiv. to ekleíp(ein) to leave out, forsake, fail to appear (see EC-) + -sis -SIS]

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The passage of all or part of one celestial body into the shadow of another, the eclipsing body.

Observers on Earth experience two major types

lunar eclipses and solar eclipses

each of which involves the Sun and the Moon. The type observed depends on whether Earth is the eclipsing body or the body in shadow. In a lunar eclipse the orbit of the Moon carries it through Earth's shadow. Observers see the full Moon dim considerably, but it remains faintly visible. In a solar eclipse the Moon is the eclipsing body, passing between Earth and the Sun while casting a traveling shadow across Earth's lighted surface. Observers along the shadow's path see a total or partial obscuring of the Sun's disk by the Moon's silhouette. The shadow cast by the eclipsing body consists of the central umbra, into which no direct sunlight penetrates (total eclipse), and the encircling penumbra, reached by light from only part of the Sun's disk (partial eclipse). Solar eclipses visible from different parts of Earth occur two to five times a year; one total solar eclipse occurs in most years. When Earth is closest to the Sun and the Moon farthest from Earth, the Moon's silhouette may fall entirely within the Sun's disk, with a ring of the disk visible around it (annular eclipse). Lunar eclipses occur twice in most years. Other kinds of eclipses include those of the Sun by Mercury or Venus (transits), of distant stars by planets or planetary satellites (occultations), and of stars by orbiting companion stars (see eclipsing variable star). See also Baily's beads.

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▪ astronomy

Introduction

 in astronomy, complete or partial obscuring of a celestial body by another. An eclipse occurs when three celestial objects become aligned.

      From the perspective of a person on Earth, the Sun is eclipsed when the Moon comes between it and Earth, and the Moon is eclipsed when it moves into the shadow of Earth cast by the Sun. Eclipses of natural satellites (moons) or of spacecraft orbiting or flying past a planet occur as the bodies move into the planet's shadow. The two component stars of an eclipsing binary star move around each other in such a way that their orbital plane passes through or very near Earth, and each star periodically eclipses the other as seen from Earth.

      When the apparent size of the eclipsed body is much smaller than that of the eclipsing body, the phenomenon is known as an occultation. Examples are the disappearance of a star, nebula, or planet behind the Moon or the vanishing of a natural satellite or spacecraft behind some body of the solar system.

      A transit occurs when, as viewed from Earth or another point in space, a relatively small body passes across the disk of a larger body, usually the Sun or a planet, eclipsing only a very small area. Mercury and Venus, for example, periodically transit the Sun, and a natural satellite may transit its planet.

Phenomena observed during eclipses

Lunar eclipse phenomena

 The Moon, when full, may enter the shadow of Earth. The motion of the Moon around Earth is from west to east (see the figure—> of a lunar eclipse, in which the view of Earth is from above its North Pole). For an observer facing south, the shadowing of the Moon begins at its left edge (if the Moon were north of the observer, as, for example, in parts of the Southern Hemisphere, the opposite would be true). If the eclipse is a total one and circumstances are favourable, the Moon will pass through the umbra, the darkest part of the shadow, in about two hours. During this time the Moon is usually not completely dark. A part of the sunlight, especially the redder light, penetrates Earth's atmosphere, is refracted into the shadow cone, and reaches the Moon. Meteorological conditions on Earth strongly affect the amount and colour of light that can penetrate the atmosphere. Generally, the totally eclipsed Moon is clearly visible and has a reddish brown, coppery colour, but the brightness varies strongly from one eclipse to another.

      Before the Moon enters the umbra and after it leaves the umbra, it must pass through the penumbra, or partial shadow. When the border between umbra and penumbra is visible on the Moon, the border is seen to be part of a circle, the projection of the circumference of Earth. This is a direct proof of the spherical shape of Earth, a discovery made by the ancient Greeks. Because of Earth's atmosphere, the edge of the umbra is rather diffuse, and the times of contact between the Moon and the umbra cannot be observed accurately.

      During the eclipse the surface of the Moon cools at a rate dependent on the constitution of the lunar soil, which is not everywhere the same. Many spots on the Moon sometimes remain brighter than their surroundings during totality—particularly in their output of infrared radiation—possibly because their heat conductivity is less, but the cause is not fully understood.

      An eclipse of the Moon can be seen under similar conditions at all places on Earth where the Moon is above the horizon.

Solar eclipse phenomena

 Totality at any particular solar eclipse can be seen only from a narrow belt on Earth, sometimes only 150 km (90 miles) wide. The various phases observable at a total solar eclipse are illustrated in the top portion of the figure—>. The designation “first contact” refers to the moment when the disk of the Moon, invisible against the bright sky background, first touches the disk of the Sun. The partial phase of the eclipse then begins as a small indentation in the western rim of the Sun becomes noticeable. The dark disk of the Moon now gradually moves across the Sun's disk, and the bright area of the Sun is reduced to a crescent. On Earth the sunlight, shining through gaps in foliage and other small openings, is then seen to form little crescents of light that are images of the light source, the Sun. Toward the beginning of totality, the direct light from the Sun diminishes very quickly, and the colour changes. The sky near the zenith becomes dark, but along the horizon Earth's atmosphere still appears bright because of the narrow extent of the umbra of the Moon's shadow on Earth. The scattered light coming in from a distance beyond the umbral region produces the effect of twilight. Animals may react with fear, humans often with awe. Birds may go to roost as they do at sunset.

      As the tiny, narrow crescent of sunlight disappears, little bright specks remain where depressions in the Moon's edge, the limb, are last to obscure the Sun's limb. These specks are known as Baily's beads, named for the 19th-century English astronomer Francis Baily (Baily, Francis), who first drew attention to them. The beads vanish at the moment of second contact, when totality begins. This is the climax of the eclipse. The reddish prominence (solar prominence)s and chromosphere of the Sun, around the Moon's limb, can now be seen. The brighter planets and stars become visible in the sky. White coronal streamers extend from the Sun to a distance of several solar radii. The air temperature on Earth in the path of totality falls by some degrees. The light of totality is much brighter than that of the full moon but is quite different in colour. The duration of totality is brief, typically lasting two to five minutes.

      The moment of third contact occurs when the Moon's west edge first reveals the Sun's disk. Many of the phenomena of second contact appear again, in reverse order. Suddenly the first Baily's bead appears. More beads of light follow, the Sun's crescent grows again, the corona disappears, daylight brightens, and the stars and planets fade from view. The thin crescent of the Sun gradually widens, and about one and a quarter hours later the eclipse ends with fourth contact, when the last encroachment made by the Moon on the Sun's rim disappears.

      During the partial phase, both before and after totality, it is absolutely essential for an observer to protect the eyes against injury by the intense brilliance of the Sun. This phase should never be viewed directly except through strong filters, a dark smoked glass, or a heavily fogged photographic plate or film.

      When totality is imminent and only a small crescent of the Sun remains, so-called shadow bands can often be seen on plain light-coloured surfaces, such as floors and walls. These are striations of light and shade, moving and undulating, several centimetres wide. Their speed and direction depend on air currents at various heights, because they are caused by refraction of sunlight by small inhomogeneities in Earth's atmosphere. The phenomenon is similar to the images of water waves seen on the bottom of a sunlit swimming pool or bath.

The geometry of eclipses, occultations, and transits

Eclipses of the Sun

 An eclipse of the Sun takes place when the Moon comes between Earth and the Sun so that the Moon's shadow sweeps over the face of Earth (see the figure—> of a total solar eclipse). This shadow consists of two parts: the umbra, a cone into which no direct sunlight penetrates; and the penumbra, which is reached by light from only a part of the Sun's disk.

 To an observer within the umbra, the Sun's disk appears completely covered by the disk of the Moon; such an eclipse is called total (see the video—>). To an observer within the penumbra, the Moon's disk appears projected against the Sun's disk so as to overlap it partly; the eclipse is then called partial for that observer. The umbral cone is narrow at the distance of Earth, and a total eclipse is observable only within the narrow strip of land or sea over which the umbra passes. A partial eclipse may be seen from places within the large area covered by the penumbra. Sometimes Earth intercepts the penumbra of the Moon but is missed by its umbra; only a partial eclipse of the Sun is then observed anywhere on Earth.

      By a remarkable coincidence, the sizes and distances of the Sun and Moon are such that they appear as very nearly the same angular size (about 0.5°) at Earth, but their apparent sizes depend on their distances from Earth. Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit, so that the distance of the Sun changes slightly during a year, with a correspondingly small change in the apparent size, the angular diameter, of the solar disk. In a similar way, the apparent size of the Moon's disk changes somewhat during the month because the Moon's orbit is also elliptical. When the Sun is nearest to Earth and the Moon is at its greatest distance, the apparent disk of the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun. If an eclipse of the Sun occurs at this time, the Moon's disk passing over the Sun's disk cannot cover it completely but will leave the rim of the Sun visible all around it. Such an eclipse is said to be annular. Total and annular eclipses are called central.

 In a partial eclipse (see the bottom portion of the figure—>), the centre of the Moon's disk does not pass across the centre of the Sun's. After the first contact, the visible crescent of the Sun decreases in width until the centres of the two disks reach their closest approach. This is the moment of maximum phase, and the extent is measured by the ratio between the smallest width of the crescent and the diameter of the Sun. After maximum phase, the crescent of the Sun widens again until the Moon passes out of the Sun's disk at the last contact.

Eclipses of the Moon

  When the Moon moves through the shadow of Earth (see the figure—> of a lunar eclipse), it dims considerably but remains faintly visible. Because the shadow of Earth is directed away from the Sun, a lunar eclipse can occur only at the time of the full moon—that is, when the Moon is on the side of Earth opposite to that of the Sun. A lunar eclipse appears much the same at all points of Earth from which it can be seen. When the Moon enters the penumbra, a penumbral eclipse occurs. The dimming of the Moon's illumination by the penumbra is so slight as to be scarcely noticeable, and penumbral eclipses are rarely watched. After a part of the Moon's surface is in the umbra and thus darkened, the Moon is said to be in partial eclipse. After about an hour, when the whole disk of the Moon is within the umbra, the eclipse becomes total (see video—>). If the Moon's path leads through the centre of the umbra, the total eclipse can be expected to last about an hour and three-quarters.

Eclipses, occultations, and transits of satellites and other objects

      These phenomena as they apply to the natural satellites of planets are conveniently illustrated by the four largest (Galilean) satellites (moon) of Jupiter, whose eclipses provide a frequently occurring and fascinating spectacle to the telescopic observer. The three innermost moons ( Io, Europa, and Ganymede) disappear into the shadow of Jupiter at each revolution, though the fourth ( Callisto) is not eclipsed every time. Because of the sizable dimensions of these bodies, some minutes elapse between first contact with the shadow and totality. The orbits of the Galilean moons lie nearly in the same plane as Jupiter's orbit around the Sun, and, at practically every revolution of each moon, the following four eclipse phenomena take place: (1) eclipse of the moon when it passes through Jupiter's shadow, (2) occultation of the moon when it disappears behind the planet, as seen from Earth, (3) transit of the moon across the disk of Jupiter, and (4) transit of the shadow of the moon across the planet's disk.

 The figure—> illustrates these phenomena; it shows Jupiter and the orbit of one of its large moons, the direction of the sunlight illuminating the system, and the direction toward Earth, from where the observation is made. When the moon arrives at position S₁ of its orbit, it enters Jupiter's shadow (eclipse) and vanishes. At position S₂ it comes out of the shadow, but to the terrestrial observer it is now hidden behind the planet (occultation) until at position S₃ it reappears at the limb. When the moon reaches position S₄, its shadow falls on Jupiter, causing a small dark spot on its surface. Seen from Earth, the moon is to the left of Jupiter approaching Jupiter's limb at the time that its shadow spot passes across the planet's disk (transit of shadow). At position S₅ the moon starts to pass in front of the planet (transit of moon), following its shadow spot. Both Jupiter and the moon must have their illuminated sides facing Earth. They differ little in total surface brightness; near the limb the moon is somewhat brighter than the planet's surface on which it appears projected, but near the middle of the disk it is hardly distinguishable. At position S₆ the shadow leaves the planet, and at position S₇ the moon emerges at the limb.

      Historically, the eclipses of Jupiter's Galilean moons are important, for they provided one of the earliest proofs of the finite speed of light. It is possible to calculate with considerable precision the times of disappearance and reappearance of a moon undergoing eclipse. In 1676 the Danish astronomer Ole Rømer (Rømer, Ole), upon noting discrepancies between the observed and calculated times of such eclipses, correctly explained them as being due to the difference in the travel time of light when Earth is nearest to Jupiter or farther away from it.

      An event related to the occultation of a planet's moons is the occultation of a space probe by a planet, as observed from Earth. During the beginning and the end of such occultations, radio signals sent out by the spacecraft pass through the planet's atmosphere and travel to Earth. When the signals are received and analyzed, they can provide information about atmospheric density, temperature, and composition. (For examples of the application of this technique, see Saturn: The atmosphere (Saturn); Uranus: The atmosphere (Uranus).)

The frequency of solar and lunar eclipses

      A solar eclipse, especially a total one, can be seen from only a limited part of Earth, whereas the eclipsed Moon can be seen at the time of the eclipse wherever the Moon is above the horizon.

      In most calendar years there are two lunar eclipses; in some years one or three or none occur. Solar eclipses occur two to five times a year, five being exceptional; there last were five in 1935, and there will not be five again until 2206. The average number of total solar eclipses in a century is 66 for Earth as a whole.

      Numbers of solar eclipses that have taken place or are predicted to take place during the 20th to 25th centuries are:

● 1901–2000: 228 eclipses, of which 145 were central (i.e., total or annular);

● 2001–2100: 224 eclipses, 144 central;

● 2101–2200: 235 eclipses, 151 central;

● 2201–2300: 248 eclipses, 156 central;

● 2301–2400: 248 eclipses, 160 central;

● 2401–2500: 237 eclipses, 153 central.

      Any point on Earth may on the average experience no more than one total solar eclipse in three to four centuries. The situation is quite different for lunar eclipses. An observer remaining at the same place (and granted cloudless skies) could see 19 or 20 lunar eclipses in 18 years. Over that period three or four total eclipses and six or seven partial eclipses may be visible from beginning to end, and five total eclipses and four or five partial eclipses may be at least partially visible. All these numbers can be worked out from the geometry of the eclipses. A total lunar eclipse can last as long as an hour and three-quarters, but for a solar total eclipse maximum duration of totality is only 7¹/₂ minutes. This difference results from the fact that the Moon's diameter is much smaller than the extension of Earth's shadow at the Moon's distance from Earth, but the Moon can be only a little greater in apparent size than the Sun.

Cycles of eclipses

      The eclipses of the Sun and the Moon occur at new moon and full moon, respectively, so that one basic time period involved in the occurrence of eclipses is the synodic month—i.e., the interval between successive new moons, as seen from Earth.

      A solar eclipse does not occur at every new moon, nor does a lunar eclipse occur at every full moon, because the Moon's orbital plane is inclined to the ecliptic, the plane of the orbit of Earth around the Sun. The angle between the planes is about 5°; thus, the Moon can pass well above or below the Sun. The line of intersection of the planes is called the line of the nodes (node), being the two points where the Moon's orbit intersects the ecliptic plane. The ascending node is the point where the Moon crosses the ecliptic from south to north, and the descending node is where it crosses from north to south. The nodes move along the ecliptic from east to west as seen from Earth, completing a revolution in 18.6 years. The Moon's revolution from one node to the same node again (called the draconic month, 27.212220 days) takes somewhat less time than a revolution from new moon to new moon (the synodic month, 29.530589 days). For a solar or lunar eclipse to occur, the Moon has to be near one of the nodes of its orbit. The draconic month is therefore the other basic period of eclipses.

      Resonance between these two periods results in an interval called the saros, after which time the Moon and the Sun return very nearly to the same relative positions. The saros was known to the ancient Babylonians. It comprises 223 synodic months—that is, 6,585.321124 days, or 241.9986 draconic months. This latter value is nearly a whole number, so the new moon is in almost the same position (i.e., very near a node) at the beginning and end of a saros. The saros lasts 18 years 11¹/₃ days or 18 years 10¹/₃ days if five leap years fall within the period. Thus, there is usually a close resemblance between an eclipse and the one taking place 18 years and 11 days earlier or later. Because the date differs by only about 11 days in the calendar year, the latitudes on Earth of the two eclipses will be about the same, as will the relative apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon. The saros period also comprises 238.992 anomalistic months, again nearly a whole number. In one anomalistic month, the Moon describes its orbit from perigee to perigee, the point at which it is nearest to Earth. Thus, the Moon's distance from Earth is the same after a whole number of anomalistic months and very nearly the same after one saros. The saros period is therefore extremely useful for the prediction of both solar and lunar eclipses.

      Because of the extra one-third day (and thus an additional eight hours of Earth's rotation) in the saros, the eclipse recurs each time approximately 120° farther west on the surface of Earth. After three saroses, or 54 years and about a month, the longitude is repeated.

      There is a regular shift on Earth to the north or to the south of successive eclipse tracks from one saros to the next. The eclipses occurring when the Moon is near its ascending node shift to the south; those happening when it is near its descending node shift to the north. A saros series of eclipses begins its life at one pole of Earth and ends it at the other. A saros series lasts between 1,226 and 1,550 years and comprises 69 to 87 eclipses. As old series finish, new ones begin; about 42 of these series are in progress at any given time.

      Two consecutive saros series are separated by the inex, a period of 29 years minus 20 days—that is, 358 synodic months—after which time the new moon has come from one node to the opposite node. A group of inex periods lasts about 23,000 years, with about 70 groups coexisting at any one time, each group comprising an average of 780 eclipses. All other cycles in eclipses are combinations of the saros and the inex.

Prediction and calculation of solar and lunar eclipses

      The problem may be divided into two parts. The first is to find out when an eclipse will occur, the other to determine when and where it will be visible.

 For this purpose it is convenient first to consider Earth as fixed and to suppose an observer is looking out from its centre. To this observer, labeled O in the figure—> of the celestial sphere, the Sun and Moon appear projected on the celestial sphere. While this sphere appears to rotate daily, as measured by the positions of the stars, around the axis PP′ (Earth's axis of rotation), the Sun's disk, S, appears to travel slowly along the great circle EE′ (the ecliptic), making a complete revolution in one year. At the same time, the Moon's disk, M, travels along its own great-circle path, LL′, once during a lunar month. The angular diameters of the Sun's and the Moon's disks, S and M, are each about 0.5° but vary slightly.

      Every month, the Moon's disk moving along its path, LL′, will overtake the more slowly moving Sun once, at the moment of the new moon. Usually the Moon's disk will pass above or below the Sun's disk. Overlapping of the two results in an eclipse of the Sun, which can happen only when the new moon occurs at the same time that the Sun is near the ascending node or descending node, [nodeascnd] and [nodedescd], respectively, of the Moon's orbit. Because the nodes are 180° apart, eclipses occur in the so-called eclipse seasons, six months apart.

 In the figure—> of the celestial sphere, the projection of Earth's umbra is shown as a disk, U, at the distance of the Moon's orbit. At that distance the shadow's disk subtends an angle of about 1.4°; its centre is always opposite the Sun's disk and travels along the ecliptic, EE′. A lunar eclipse occurs whenever the shadow's disk overlaps the Moon's disk; this happens only when the shadow's disk is near one of the nodes and the Sun is near the opposite node. The Sun's passage through the lunar nodes is thus the critical time for both solar and lunar eclipses. The plane of the Moon's path, LL′, is not fixed, and its nodes move slowly along the ecliptic in the direction indicated by the arrows, making a complete revolution in about 19 years. The interval between two successive passages of the Sun through one of the nodes is termed an eclipse year, and, since the Moon's node moves so as to meet the advancing Sun, this interval is about 18.6 days less than a tropical (or ordinary) year.

 In the figure—> of the Moon's ascending node, this region is depicted as seen from the centre of the celestial sphere and is shown much enlarged. The node is kept fixed, and the apparent motions of the Sun and the Moon (top portion of the figure) are shown relative to the node. To the observer on Earth at the centre of the sphere, the Sun's disk will travel along the ecliptic, EE′, and the Moon's disk along its designated path, LL′. The Sun is so distant compared with the size of Earth that, from all places on Earth's surface, the Sun is seen nearly in the same position as it would be from the very centre. On the other hand, the Moon is relatively near, and so its projected position on the celestial sphere is different for various places of observation on Earth. In fact, it may be displaced as much as 1° from the position in which it is seen from the centre of Earth. If the radius of the Moon's disk is enlarged by 1°, a “Moon circle,” C, is obtained that encloses all possible positions of the Moon's disk seen from anywhere on Earth. Conversely, if any disk of the Moon's size is placed inside this Moon circle, there is a place on Earth from which the Moon is seen in that position.

 Accordingly, an eclipse of the Sun occurs somewhere on Earth whenever the Moon overtakes the Sun in such a position that the Moon circle, C, passes over the Sun's disk; when the latter is entirely covered by the Moon circle, the eclipse will be total or annular. From the top portion of the figure—> of the Moon's ascending node, it is evident that a solar eclipse will take place if a new moon occurs while the Sun moves from position S₁ to position S₄. This period is the eclipse season; it starts 19 days before the Sun passes through a lunar node and ends 19 days thereafter. There are two complete eclipse seasons, one at each node, during a calendar year. Because there is a new moon every month, at least one solar eclipse, and occasionally two, occurs during each eclipse season. A fifth solar eclipse during a calendar year is possible because part of a third eclipse season may occur at the beginning of January or at the end of December.

 The bottom portion of the figure—> of the Moon's ascending node illustrates the condition necessary for a lunar eclipse. If a full moon occurs within 13 days of the passage of the Sun though a lunar node—and thus of the Earth's umbral disk, U, through the opposite node—the Moon will be eclipsed. (In the figure the umbral disk passes through the ascending node.) Most eclipse seasons, but not all, will thus also contain a lunar eclipse. When two eclipse seasons and a partial third season fall in a calendar year, there may be three lunar eclipses in that year. Eclipses of the Sun are evidently more frequent than those of the Moon. Solar eclipses, however, can be seen from only a very limited region of Earth, whereas lunar eclipses are visible from an entire hemisphere.

 During a solar eclipse the shadow cones—the umbra and penumbra—of the Moon sweep across the face of Earth (see the figure—> of an eclipse of the Sun), while, at the same time, Earth is rotating on its axis. Within the narrow area covered by the umbra, the eclipse is total. Within the wider surrounding region covered by the penumbra, the eclipse is partial.

      Astronomical ephemerides (ephemeris), or tables, that are published annually for the year ahead provide maps tracing the paths of the more important eclipses in considerable detail, as well as data for accurate calculation of the times of contact at any given observing location on Earth. Calculations are made some years ahead in Ephemeris Time (ET), which is defined by the orbital motion of Earth and the other planets. At the time of the eclipse, the correction is made to Universal Time (UT), which is defined by the rotation of Earth and is not rigorously uniform.

      Modern computers make it possible to predict solar eclipses several years ahead with high accuracy. By means of the same calculational methods, eclipses can be “predicted backward” in time. The generation of the times and observational locations for ancient eclipses has been valuable in historical and scientific research (see below Eclipses in history (eclipse)).

Eclipse research activities

Solar research

      During a total solar eclipse, when the Moon has fully covered the Sun's brilliant visible disk, the faint extensive outer atmosphere of the Sun, known as the corona, is revealed. Just prior to this event, the chromosphere, a thin bright red layer in the lower solar atmosphere, appears for a few seconds at the edge of the Sun's disk. Then, as the chromosphere vanishes, the corona leaps into view. Pearly white coronal streamers can be seen far beyond the Moon's dark disk, sometimes to a distance several times the Sun's radius. When the corona is made visible, astronomers can observe and record its details.

      Because the corona is a million times fainter than the disk of the Sun, it cannot be seen unaided in broad daylight. In 1930 the French astronomer Bernard Lyot (Lyot, Bernard) invented the coronagraph, a specialized telescope that produces an artificial eclipse of the Sun. Astronomers could then study the corona any day when the aureole, the bright ring around the Sun composed of light scattered by particles in the Earth's atmosphere, was not especially bright. Nevertheless, the daytime sky near the Sun is at least a thousand times darker during a total eclipse than otherwise. Therefore, total eclipses continued to provide the best opportunities to study the Sun's outer atmosphere until the mid-1970s, when suborbital rocket and satellite observatories became available.

      Observatories in space have several important advantages over surface-based instruments, being immune to weather and bright skies and above the distorting and filtering effects of Earth's atmosphere. On the other hand, they are exceedingly expensive and require years of development and construction. In comparison, an eclipse expedition—the establishment of a temporary observation station in the path of totality of an upcoming eclipse—is relatively cheap and highly flexible in design. Therefore, despite their limitations, surface-based observations of total solar eclipses continue to play a role in gathering new knowledge about the Sun.

      Among the many important advances that were made during past total eclipses, three notable ones can serve as examples—the discovery of the element helium, experimental support for the general theory of relativity, and the discovery that the Sun's corona is exceedingly hot.

Discovery of helium

      In 1868, while observing an eclipse whose path of totality passed over India, the French astronomer Pierre Janssen (Janssen, Pierre) observed a bright yellow line in the spectrum of a solar prominence, a bright cloud of hot ionized gas that extends into the corona. Janssen noticed that the yellow line's wavelength was slightly shorter than that of the well-known line of sodium, and he reported his result to the British astronomer Joseph Norman Lockyer (Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman), who had missed the eclipse. Lockyer, using a powerful new spectrograph at the University of Cambridge, was able to observe the yellow line in a prominence outside a solar eclipse. Despite many attempts, he failed to identify the line with any element known on Earth and finally concluded that it corresponded to a new element, which he named helium, from the Greek word for sun. Helium was not discovered on Earth until 1895.

Support for the general theory of relativity

      Soon after Albert Einstein (Einstein, Albert)'s general theory of relativity (relativity) was published in 1916, scientists set to conducting a number of experimental tests to verify or disprove various predictions of the theory. One prediction was that the dark (absorption) lines known as Fraunhofer lines in the spectrum of sunlight should be redshifted (i.e., shifted toward longer wavelengths) by a precise amount because of the Sun's gravitational field. Astronomers failed initially to find this shift, so in 1918 the validity of the general theory was still in some doubt.

      The general theory also predicted that a ray of light emanating from a distant star and passing near the Sun should be deflected a measurable amount by the Sun's gravity. If the ray just grazes the edge of the Sun, the angular deflection should be 1.75 arc seconds, and the deflection should decrease in proportion to the distance of the ray from the Sun's edge. (For comparison, the average solar diameter is 1,922 arc seconds.) Einstein suggested that astronomers should observe this effect at a total eclipse as another test of his theory.

      British astronomers, including Arthur Eddington (Eddington, Sir Arthur Stanley), took up the challenge. They organized two expeditions to observe the five minutes of totality afforded by the eclipse of May 29, 1919, one in Sobral, Braz., and the other on the island of Príncipe, off the African coast. From Sobral the astronomers obtained a series of photographs on glass plates of the stars around the Sun at mid-totality. The expedition also photographed the same stars that had appeared during the eclipse but without the presence of the Sun. By comparing the relative positions of the stars on the two sets of plates, the astronomers obtained a figure of 1.98 arc seconds for the deflection of starlight at the edge of the solar disk. The expedition to Príncipe, led by Eddington, encountered clouds during the eclipse and was able to photograph only four stars on five plates. From these, Eddington derived an estimate of 1.61 arc seconds for the deflection at the edge of the Sun. The combined results from the two expeditions were close enough to the predicted 1.75 arc seconds to lend support to Einstein's theory but not to establish it unconditionally. Nevertheless, they had tremendous popular appeal and helped establish Einstein as one of the foremost physicists of his time.

      Many attempts were made to improve on the accuracy of this stellar method, but with limited success. In 1974, however, astronomers at the U.S. National Radio Astronomy Observatory observed three quasars that lie in a straight line in the sky and are occulted by the Sun at some time during the year. The radiation from these radio sources was deflected by the Sun in the same manner as starlight. Their radio interferometer was capable of much higher angular precision than photography allows, and their final result was within 1 percent of the prediction of the general theory.

Temperature of the corona

      About 1930 German astronomer Walter Grotrian examined spectra of the solar corona he had obtained at a total eclipse. He noticed that, although coronal light had the same distribution of colours as light from the solar surface—the photosphere—it lacked the absorption lines observed in photospheric light. Grotrian hypothesized that coronal light consists of photospheric light that has been scattered toward Earth by free electrons in the corona. To account for the lack of absorption lines in coronal light, these free electrons had to be moving at very high speeds; that is, the corona must be very hot.

      A second clue came from some strange bright lines in the corona's spectrum. Because similar lines found in the spectra of interstellar gaseous nebulae (see nebula) had been shown to be emitted by ionized oxygen and nitrogen under conditions of extremely low gas density and high temperature, Grotrian speculated that the bright coronal lines might have a similar origin. He wrote to Bengt Edlén, a Swedish physicist who was studying the spectra of elements at very high temperatures. With atomic data that Edlén supplied, Grotrian was able to predict the wavelengths of two of the strongest coronal lines, including one that can be produced only from ionized iron at a temperature of about a million kelvins (K). With Grotrian thus showing the way, Edlén eventually was able to identify the majority of the two dozen known coronal lines with terrestrial elements such as silicon, calcium, and iron. All these lines are emitted only at temperatures of a million K or more. They are called “forbidden” because, according to the rules of quantum mechanics, the atomic transitions from higher to lower energy states responsible for lines have only a small likelihood of occurring under normal laboratory conditions.

      Since Grotrian's and Edlén's work, astronomers have learned that some parts of the normal corona can attain temperatures as high as three or four million K. In comparison, the photosphere has a temperature of only 6,000 K. Because heat cannot flow spontaneously from cooler to hotter regions, some unknown, nonthermal process must maintain the high temperature of the corona. Although astronomers have searched for this process for decades, they have yet to identify it positively. Many investigations of the corona still take place during the ideal conditions of a total solar eclipse.

Lunar research

      Lunar eclipses can yield information about the cooling of the Moon's soil when the Sun's radiation is suddenly removed and therefore about the soil's conductivity of heat and its structure. Infrared and radio-wavelength radiation from the Moon declines in intensity more slowly than does visible light emission during an eclipse because they are emitted from below the surface, and measurements indicate how far the different kinds of radiation penetrate into the lunar soil. Infrared observations show that at many “bright spots” the soil retains its heat much longer than in surrounding areas.

      Because of the absence of a lunar atmosphere, the Moon's solid surface is exposed to the full intensity of ultraviolet and particulate radiation from the Sun, which may give rise to fluorescence in some rock materials. Observations during lunar eclipses have given positive results for this phenomenon, with the appearance of abnormal bright regions in eclipse-obscured parts of the Moon.

Transits of Mercury and Venus

      A transit of Mercury or Venus across the face of the Sun, as seen from Earth, occurs at inferior conjunction, when the planet lies between the Sun and Earth. Because the orbits of both planets, like the Moon's orbit, are inclined to the ecliptic, these planets usually pass above or below the Sun (see above Cycles of eclipses (eclipse)). Also like the Moon's orbit, each planet's orbit intersects the ecliptic plane in two points called nodes; if inferior conjunction occurs at a time when the planet is near a node, a transit of the Sun can occur.

 For Mercury these times occur around May 8 and November 10. November transits occur at intervals of 7, 13, or 33 years, while May transits occur only at the latter two intervals. On average, Mercury transits the Sun about 13 times per century. In the transit of Mercury that took place on Nov. 15, 1999, the planet just grazed the edge of the Sun. The Transition Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE) satellite, an Earth-orbiting solar observatory launched in 1998, recorded the event in several wavelengths (see the photo—>). Mercury's dark disk measured only about 10 arc seconds in diameter, compared with the Sun's diameter of 1,922 arc seconds. Transits of Mercury also have occurred or will occur on May 7, 2003, Nov. 8, 2006, May 9, 2016, Nov. 11, 2019, and Nov. 13, 2032. Observers cannot see Mercury's tiny disk against the Sun without some form of magnification.

 Transits of Venus occur at its nodes in December and June and generally follow a recurrence pattern of 8, 121, 8, and 105 years before starting over. Following the transits of Dec. 9, 1874, and Dec. 6, 1882, the world waited 121 years until June 8, 2004, for the next transit to occur. Dates for successive transits of Venus are June 6, 2012, and, after a 105-year interval, Dec. 11, 2117, and Dec. 8, 2125. Unlike a transit of Mercury, a transit of Venus can be watched without magnification through a suitable dark filter or as an image projected on a screen through a pinhole lens.

      Observing the transits of Venus was of great importance to 18th- and 19th-century astronomers, because careful timings of the events permitted accurate measurement of the distance between Venus and Earth. This distance in turn allowed calculation of the distance between Earth and the Sun, called the astronomical unit, as well as the distances to the Sun of all the other planets. For more-detailed discussions of this topic, see astronomical unit; Venus: Observations from Earth (Venus).

Occultations

      The Moon occults all the objects in the sky in a 10°-wide belt centred on the ecliptic within a period of about nine years. Initially, astronomers' primary goal of observing lunar occultations of stars was to refine the parameters of the Moon's orbit. With the advent of large telescopes and fast electronics, lunar occultations have found application in measuring stellar angular diameters, detecting dust envelopes around stars, and a variety of other studies.

      Lunar occultations are used extensively to determine the angular diameters of cool giant stars such as Antares and Aldebaran. An angular resolution of a few thousandths of an arc second is achievable. As a star becomes occulted, its light is diffracted around the sharp edge of the Moon and produces a characteristic oscillatory signal. From the duration and shape of the signal, astronomers can derive the diameter and effective surface temperature of the star. The event is so fast, lasting only a few milliseconds, that any distortion due to Earth's atmosphere (twinkling, or scintillation) is eliminated, which is an advantage over the alternative method of optical interferometry. The diameters of some stars determined in this way seem to vary in time, as if the stars are pulsating slowly.

      Lunar occultations have also revealed dust shells around stars and helped determine their shape and structure. One class of stars studied this way are the Wolf-Rayet stars—large, massive stars that blow off a thick envelope of material from their surface in a stellar wind as they near the end of their lives. In addition, lunar occultations are useful for discovering binary stars (binary star), and systematic surveys of the sky are made for this purpose.

      Arguably the most famous application of lunar occultation occurred in 1962, when the British astronomer Cyril Hazard and colleagues used the Parkes radio telescope in Australia to refine measurements of the positions in the sky of catalogued radio sources that were not identified with any known stars or galaxies. To improve the accuracy of the positions, Hazard timed the occultation of the sources by the Moon. One radio source, designated 3C 273, turned out to consist of two sources separated by 19.5 arc seconds. The signal from one component suggested it could be a star, but it had a type of radio spectrum that had never been seen before. The following year the American astronomer Maarten Schmidt (Schmidt, Maarten) identified a 12th-magnitude star at the precise location of this radio source and obtained its spectrum. The spectrum showed that the source was receding at 15 percent of the speed of light and was therefore very distant. Hazard had in fact resolved the location of the first known quasi-stellar radio source, or quasar.

      All the major planets and their moons occult stars in their paths, and such occultations can occasionally yield information on planetary atmospheres. For example, variations over time in the atmosphere of Pluto have been inferred from stellar occultations. Sometimes a stellar occultation produces a stunning surprise, as occurred on March 10, 1977, when the planet Uranus was predicted to pass between Earth and a bright star. The event was observed by several teams of astronomers, who hoped to derive an accurate estimate of the diameter of the planet from their data. Unexpectedly, however, the light from the star was briefly obscured several times before and after the disk of Uranus occulted it. It was concluded that the brief changes in the star's brightness were due to the presence around Uranus of a previously unobserved system of rings, somewhat like the rings of Saturn.

      Asteroids, like moons and planets, occult stars as they orbit the Sun. By timing the vanishing and reappearance of a star as an asteroid crosses it from two or more locations on Earth, astronomers can determine the asteroid's size and shape. In modern times a large community of professional and amateur scientists has cooperated in predicting and observing such occultations. For example, on Jan. 19, 1991, observers at nine locations across the United States timed the occultation of a star by Kleopatra, a main-belt asteroid. The timings determined nine different chords across the asteroid, from which was drawn a rough outline of the asteroid, showing it to have an elongated, cigar shape.

Eclipsing binary stars

      Astronomers have estimated that more than half of all stars in the Milky Way Galaxy are members of a double or a more complex multiple star system. Most of these are too far from Earth for the individual stars to be resolved. In a double star, or binary, system (see binary star), each star attracts the other gravitationally and orbits about a unique point, the centre of mass of the pair. If the plane of their orbits lies edge-on toward Earth, each star will be seen to eclipse the other once each orbital period. Such a system is known as an eclipsing binary.

 In an eclipsing binary system, the total amount of light varies periodically; for this reason it is alternatively called an eclipsing variable star. The light curve of an eclipsing binary—i.e., a plot of its changes in brightness over time—has a deep minimum when the brighter star is eclipsed and a shallower minimum when the dimmer star is eclipsed. The variable star Algol, or Beta Persei, was the first eclipsing binary to be recognized as such.

      Eclipsing binaries are the principal sources of information on the masses and radii of stars. A complete analysis of the light curve can yield the radii of the stars (in units of their separation); orbital characteristics such as eccentricity, orientation in space, and tilt with respect to Earth; and even the surface temperatures of the stars. Kepler's third law relates the orbital period, the separation of the stars, and the sum of their masses. From observations of the periodic shifts of each star's spectral lines due to motion of the star toward or away from Earth (the Doppler effect), astronomers can determine the velocity along the line of sight of each star in its orbit. The ratio of the stellar masses then follows from their velocities. With the sum and ratio of the masses in hand, both masses can be determined.

      Studies of eclipsing binaries have revealed unexpected structural details and time-related changes in the component stars. Some stars turn out to have dark starspots, for example, similar to but much larger than sunspots on the Sun. Other stars flare in brightness as mass is exchanged from one component to the other. Rapid rotation of some stars flattens their shapes into ellipsoids. Even the long-known solar phenomenon of limb darkening, the gradual decrease in brightness from the centre to the edge of the Sun's disk, has been detected in the component stars of eclipsing binaries.

      Zeta Aurigae is the prototype of a class of eclipsing binaries composed of a cool supergiant star and a hot blue star. Although the supergiant's atmosphere is large enough to reach to the orbit of Venus were the star to replace the Sun in the solar system, it is very rarified. When the blue star first passes behind the supergiant, its light is not fully extinguished but travels through the supergiant's cool atmosphere, which modifies the light's characteristics. Thus, the blue star acts as a probe of the supergiant's atmosphere. By analyzing the combined spectra of the two stars, astronomers can determine the temperature, density, and composition of the supergiant's atmosphere.

       Beta Lyrae is the prototype of another class of eclipsing binaries, in which one star is embedded in a ring or disk of material that it has pulled off the other star. One star has twice the mass of the Sun; the companion star is much dimmer, though it has a mass of about 12 Suns. This binary is highly variable, and it shows signs that mass is spiraling from one star to the other at a rate of about five Earth masses per year. This exchange of mass has apparently caused an increase in the orbital period, from 12.89 days in 1784, when it was discovered, to 12.94 days in 1978.

Jack B. Zirker Jakob Houtgast

Eclipses in history

 Eclipses of the Sun and Moon are often quite spectacular, and in ancient and medieval times they were frequently recorded as portents—usually of disaster. Hence, it is not surprising that many of these events are mentioned in history and literature as well as in astronomical writings.

 Well over 1,000 individual eclipse records are extant from various parts of the ancient and medieval world. Most known ancient observations of these phenomena originate from only three countries: china, Babylonia, and Greece (ancient Greek civilization). No eclipse records appear to have survived from ancient Egypt or India, for example. Whereas virtually all Babylonian accounts are confined to astronomical treatises, those from China and Greece are found in historical and literary works as well. As yet, no eclipse report before 800 BC can be definitely dated; the earliest reliable observation is from Assyria and dates from 763 BC. Commencing only a few decades later, numerous Babylonian and Chinese observations are preserved. Eclipses are occasionally noted in surviving European writings from the Dark Ages (for instance, in the works of the 5th-century bishop Hydatius and the 8th-century theologian and historian Saint Bede the Venerable (Bede the Venerable, Saint)). However, during this period only the Chinese continued to observe and report such events on a regular basis. Chinese records in the traditional style continued almost uninterrupted to modern times.

      Many eclipses were carefully recorded by the astronomers of Baghdad and Cairo between about AD 800 and 1000. Also, after about AD 800, both European and Arabic annalists began to include in their chronicles accounts of eclipses and other remarkable celestial phenomena. Some of these chronicles continued until the 16th century and even later, although the peak period was between about 1100 and 1400. Around 1450, European astronomers commenced making fairly accurate measurements of the time of day or night when eclipses occurred, and this pursuit spread rapidly following the invention of the telescope. This discussion is confined to eclipse observations made in the pretelescopic period.

      The present-day value of ancient and medieval records of eclipses falls into two main categories: (1) chronological, depending mainly on the connection between an eclipse and a significant historical event, and (2) astronomical, especially the study of long-term variations in the length of the mean solar day.

      The Sun is usually so brilliant that the casual observer is liable to overlook those eclipses in which less than about 80 percent of the solar disk is obscured. Only when a substantial proportion of the Sun is covered by the Moon does the loss of daylight become noticeable. Hence, it is rare to find references to small partial eclipses in literary and historical works. At various times, astronomers in Babylonia, China, and the Arab lands systematically reported eclipses of small magnitude, but their vigilance was assisted by their ability to make approximate predictions. They thus knew roughly when to scrutinize the Sun. Arab astronomers sometimes viewed the Sun by reflection in water to diminish its brightness when watching for eclipses. The Roman philosopher and writer Seneca (Seneca, Lucius Annaeus) (c. 4 BC–AD 65), on the other hand, recounts that, in his time, pitch was employed for this purpose. It is not known, however, whether such artificial aids were used regularly.

      When the Moon covers a large proportion of the Sun, the sky becomes appreciably darker, and stars may appear. On those rare occasions when the whole of the Sun is obscured, the sudden occurrence of intense darkness, accompanied by a pronounced fall in temperature, may leave a profound impression on eyewitnesses. Total or near-total eclipses of the Sun are of special chronological importance. On average, they occur so infrequently at any particular location that if the date of such an event can be established by historical means to within a decade or two, it may well prove possible to fix an exact date by astronomical calculation.

      The Moon even when full is much dimmer than the Sun, and lunar eclipses of quite small magnitude are thus fairly readily visible to the unaided eye. Both partial and total obscurations are recorded in history with roughly comparable frequency. As total eclipses of the Moon occur rather often (every two or three years on average at a given place), they are of less chronological importance than their solar counterparts. There are, however, several notable exceptions, as is discussed below.

Literary and historical references

Chinese (China)

      According to long-established tradition, the history of astronomy in ancient China can be traced back before 2000 BC. The earliest relics that are of astronomical significance date from nearly a millennium later, however. The Anyang oracle bones (inscribed turtle shells, ox bones, and so forth) of the latter part of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), which were uncovered near Anyang in northeastern China, record several eclipses of both the Sun and the Moon. The following report is an example:

On day guiyou [the 10th day of the 60-day cycle], it was inquired [by divination]: “The Sun was eclipsed in the evening; is it good?” On day guiyou it was inquired: “The Sun was eclipsed in the evening; is it bad?”

      The above text provides clear evidence that eclipses were regarded as omens at this early period (as is true of other celestial phenomena). Such a belief was extremely prevalent in China during later centuries. The term translated here as “eclipse” (shi) is the same as the word for “eat.” Evidently the Shang people thought that a monster actually devoured the Sun or Moon during an eclipse. Not until many centuries later was the true explanation known, but by then the use of the term shi was firmly established to describe eclipses, and so it remained throughout Chinese history. The oracle-bone text, translated above, twice gives the day of the sexagenary cycle; this cycle, which was independent of any astronomical parameter, continued in use (seemingly without interruption) until modern times. Nevertheless, as the year in which an eclipse occurred is never mentioned on the preserved oracle bones (many of which are mere fragments), dating of these observations by astronomical calculation has proved extremely difficult. In general, Shang chronology is still very uncertain.

      The Shijing (“Classic of Poetry”) contains a lamentation occasioned by an eclipse of the Moon followed by an eclipse of the Sun. The text, dating from the 8th century BC, may be translated:

The Sun was eclipsed, we found it greatly ominous…that this Moon is eclipsed is but an ordinary matter; but that this Sun is eclipsed—wherein lies the evil?

      The different attitudes toward solar and lunar eclipses at this time is interesting. Throughout the subsequent 1,000 years or so, lunar eclipses were hardly ever reported in China—in marked contrast to solar obscurations, which were systematically observed during much of this period. The earliest of these observations are recorded in a chronicle of the Chinese state of Lu (now in Shandong province), the birthplace of Confucius. This work, known as the Chunqiu (“Spring and Autumn [Annals]”), lists many solar eclipses between 722 and 481 BC. On three occasions the Chunqiu describes eclipse ceremonies in which drums were beaten and oxen were sacrificed. Further, three eclipses (occurring in 709, 601, and 549 BC) were described as total. The earliest of these, that of July 17, 709 BC, is recorded as follows:

Third year of Duke Huan, 7th month, day renchen [the 29th day of the cycle], the first day of the month. The Sun was eclipsed and it was total.

      This is the earliest known record of a total solar eclipse from any civilization. Computation shows that this eclipse was indeed total at Qufu, the Lu capital.

 From about 200 BC (following the unification of China into a single empire), a wide variety of celestial phenomena began to be noted on a regular basis. Summaries of these records are found in astronomical treatises contained in the official histories. In many instances, a report is accompanied by a detailed astrological prognostication. For example, the Houhanshu (“History of the Later Han Dynasty”) contains the following account under a year corresponding to AD 119–120:On the day wuwu [the 55th cyclical day], the 1st day of the 12th lunar month, the Sun was eclipsed; it was almost complete. On the Earth it became like evening. It was 11 deg in the constellation of the Maid. The woman ruler [i.e., the empress dowager] showed aversion to it. Two years and three months later, Deng, the empress dowager, died.

      The date of this eclipse is equivalent to Jan. 18, AD 120. On this exact day there occurred an eclipse of the Sun that was very large in China. The above-cited text is particularly interesting because it clearly describes an obscuration of the Sun, which, though causing dusk conditions, was not quite total where it was seen. With regard to the accompanying prognostication, it should be pointed out that a delay of two or three years between the occurrence of a celestial omen and its presumed fulfillment is quite typical of Chinese astrology.

      Systematic observation of lunar eclipses in China began around AD 400, and from this period onward the official astronomers often timed the various phases of both solar and lunar eclipses with the aid of clepsydras (water clocks). Chinese astronomical techniques spread to Korea and Japan, and, especially after AD 1000, eclipses were regularly observed independently in all three countries. However, the Chinese records are usually the most detailed.

      The following account from the Yuanshi (“History of the Yuan Dynasty”) of the total lunar eclipse of May 19, AD 1277, follows the customary practice of quoting timings in double hours (12 to a combined day and night) and marks (each equal to ¹/₁₀₀ of a day and night, or 0.24 hours):

14th year of the Zhiyuan reign period, 4th month, day guiyou [the 10th cyclical day], full Moon. The Moon was eclipsed. Beginning of loss at 6 marks in the hour of zi; the eclipse was total at 3 marks in the hour of chou; maximum at 5 marks in the hour of chou; reappearance of light at 7 marks in the hour of chou; restoration to fullness at 4 marks in the hour of yin.

      The three consecutive double hours zi, chou, and yin correspond, respectively, to 11 PM to 1 AM, 1 AM to 3 AM, and 3 AM to 5 AM. The measured times are equivalent to 12:34 AM (start of eclipse), 1:50 AM (beginning of totality), 2:19 AM (mid-eclipse), 2:48 AM (end of totality), and 4:05 AM (end of eclipse).

      From the 3rd century AD onward, there is evidence of attempts at predicting eclipses by Chinese astronomers. Crude at first, these predictions reached their peak accuracy near the end of the 13th century, with typical timing errors of about one-fourth of an hour.

Assyrian (Assyria)

      The Assyrian Chronicle, a cuneiform tablet that preserves the names of the annual magistrates who gave their names to the years (similar to the later Athenian archons or Roman consuls), records under the year that corresponds to 763–762 BC: “Revolt in the citadel; in [the month] Siwan [equivalent to May–June], the Sun had an eclipse.” The reference must be to the eclipse of June 15, 763 BC, the only large eclipse visible in Assyria over a period of many years. A possible allusion to the same eclipse is found in the Old Testament: “ ‘And on that day,' says the Lord God, ‘I will make the Sun go down at noon, and darken the earth in broad daylight' ” (Amos 8:9). Amos was prophesying during the reign of King Jeroboam II (786–746 BC) of Israel, and the eclipse would be very large throughout Israel.

      Many references to both solar and lunar eclipses in the first half of the 7th century BC are found among the divination reports to Assyrian kings. These tablets, which are now largely in the British Museum, were found in the royal archives at Nineveh. A text probably dating from 675 BC carries the following account, indicating that the eclipse was regarded as an unfavourable omen:

The eclipse of the Moon which took place in Marchesvan [month VIII] began [in the east]. That is bad for Subartu. What [is wrong]? After it, Jupiter ent[ered] the Moon three times. What is being done to make its evil pass?

Babylonian (Babylonia)

      Until the discovery of the late Babylonian astronomical texts in the latter half of the 19th century, the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy's Almagest (2nd century AD) was the only source of Babylonian eclipse observations. Ptolemy cites several records of lunar eclipses, the earliest in 721 BC. Unfortunately, the dates and observational details are not in original form but have been edited, presumably by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus (2nd century BC). Dates have been converted to the Egyptian 365-day calendar, while times have been expressed in hours instead of the original units.

      The discovery and decipherment of vast numbers of cuneiform astronomical texts at the site of Babylon in the 1870s and '80s completely revolutionized the study of Babylonian astronomy. Most of the extant texts, dating from about 747 BC to AD 75, are in the British Museum. Numerous day-to-day astronomical diaries contain records of celestial phenomena, including many eclipses. Although most of the tablets are very fragmentary, additional Babylonian collections of eclipse reports—abstracted from the original diaries—also survive. An example of a lunar eclipse record, dating from 80 BC, is as follows. Time intervals, presumably measured with the aid of a water clock, are expressed in UŠ (time-degrees, equal to four minutes), while eclipse magnitudes are expressed in “fingers,” each equal to ¹/₁₂ of the lunar diameter:

Year 168 [ Arsacid dynasty], that is year 232 [ Seleucid kingdom]…month I, day 13…lunar eclipse…. In 20 deg of night it made six fingers. Duration of maximal phase 7 deg of night, until it began to become bright. In 13 deg…4 fingers lacking to brightness it set…. [Began] at 40 deg before sunrise.

      The date, when converted to the Julian calendar (April 11, 80 BC), is exactly correct. Sunrise on this occasion would occur at 5:37 AM, so that the measured start of the eclipse was at 2:57 AM, and maximum phase (when half of the Moon was estimated to be in shadow) was at 4:31 AM. When the Moon set, one-third of its disk was observed to be still in shadow. Use of “fingers” to express the magnitude of an eclipse (both lunar and solar) spread to Greece and hence to the Arab world. This convention was still fairly standard among astronomers worldwide until the 20th century.

      Babylonian eclipse predictions, which were based on past series of observations, were fairly accurate for this early period. Timing errors averaged about two hours, and predictions gave a useful indication of the likelihood of an eclipse to intending observers.

Jewish (Judaism)

      Calculation shows that the only springtime lunar eclipses visible in Israel between 17 BC and AD 3 took place on March 23, 5 BC, and March 13, 4 BC. The former was total in the mid-evening, while on the latter occasion about one-third of the Moon was in shadow around 3 AM. These two dates are conveniently close to one another, although the latter date is usually preferred by chronologists—implying that Herod died in the spring of 4 BC.

Greek (ancient Greek civilization)

      In a fragment of a lost poem by the 7th-century-BC Greek poet Archilochus occur the words:

Nothing can be surprising any more or impossible or miraculous, now that Zeus, father of the Olympians, has made night out of noonday, hiding the bright sunlight, and fear has come upon mankind. After this, men can believe anything, expect anything.

      This seems a clear reference to a total solar eclipse. The phenomenon has been identified as most likely the eclipse of April 6, 648 BC, which was total in the Aegean and occurred during Archilochus's lifetime.

      Fragments survive of other early Greek poetic descriptions of eclipses, and the ninth paean of Pindar, addressed to the Thebans, takes an eclipse of the Sun as its theme:

Beam of the Sun! O thou that seest from afar, what wilt thou be devising? O mother of mine eyes! O star supreme, reft from us in the daytime! Why hast thou perplexed the power of man and the way of wisdom, by rushing forth on a darksome track?

      The 5th-century-BC poet then proceeds to speculate on the meaning of this omen. Although he prays, “Change this worldwide portent into some painless blessing for Thebes,” he adds, “I in no wise lament whate'er I shall suffer with the rest.” This strongly suggests that Pindar, who was a Theban, had himself recently witnessed a great eclipse at his hometown. The most probable date for the eclipse is April 30, 463 BC; modern calculations indicate that the eclipse was nearly total at Thebes.

      The historian Thucydides records three eclipses during the Peloponnesian War, which began in 431 BC and lasted for 27 years. The first of these was a solar obscuration that occurred in the summer of the first year of the war (calculated date Aug. 3, 431 BC). On this occasion, the Sun assumed the form of a crescent in the afternoon before returning to its natural shape, and during the eclipse some stars became visible. This description agrees well with modern computations, except that no “star” apart from the planet Venus should have been seen. Seven years afterward, Thucydides noted that a “small” solar eclipse took place in the summer of the eighth year of the war (calculated date March 21, 424 BC). Finally, a lunar eclipse occurred in the summer of the 19th year of the war (calculated date Aug. 27, 413 BC). This last date had been selected by the Athenian commanders Nicias and Demosthenes for the departure of their armies from Syracuse. All preparations were ready, but the signal had not been given when the Moon was totally eclipsed in the evening. The Athenian soldiers and sailors clamoured against departure, and Nicias, in obedience to the soothsayers, resolved to remain thrice nine days. This delay enabled the Syracusans to capture or destroy the whole of the Athenian fleet and army.

      Aug. 15, 310 BC, is the date of a total eclipse of the Sun that was seen at sea by the tyrant Agathocles and his men after they had escaped from Syracuse and were on their way to Africa. Diodorus Siculus, a historian of the 1st century BC, reported that “on the next day [after the escape] there occurred such an eclipse of the Sun that utter darkness set in and the stars were seen everywhere.” Historians of astronomy have often debated whether Agathocles' ships sailed around the north or south coast of Sicily during the course of the journey. Modern computations of the eclipse track are still unable to resolve this issue, although they indicate that the eclipse was total over much of Sicily.

      In the dialogue of the Greek author Plutarch (AD 46–c. 119) concerning the features of the Moon's disk, one of the characters, named Lucius, deduces from the phases of the Moon and the phenomenon of eclipses a similarity between Earth and the Moon. Lucius illustrates his argument by means of a recent eclipse of the Sun, which, “beginning just after noonday, made many stars shine out from many parts of the sky and tempered the air in the manner of twilight.” This eclipse has been identified with one that occurred on March 20, AD 71, which was total in Greece. Whether Plutarch is describing a real, and therefore datable, event or is merely basing his description on accounts written by earlier authors has been disputed. However, his description is so vivid and original that it seems likely that Plutarch witnessed the eclipse himself. Later in the same dialogue, Lucius refers to a brightness that appears around the Moon's rim in total eclipses of the Sun. This is one of the earliest known allusions to the solar corona. Plutarch was unusually interested in eclipses, and his Parallel Lives, an account of the deeds and characters of illustrious Greeks and Romans, contains many references to both lunar and solar eclipses of considerable historical importance. There also are frequent records of eclipses in other ancient Greek literature.

       Ptolemy in his Almagest records several lunar eclipses between 201 BC and AD 136. Most of these were observed at Alexandria in Egypt. For instance, the eclipse of May 1, 174 BC, is described in the following words:

From the beginning of the eighth hour till the end of the tenth in Alexandria there was an eclipse of the Moon which reached a maximum obscuration of 7 digits from the north; so mid-eclipse occurred 2¹/₂ seasonal hours after midnight, which corresponds to 2¹/₃ equinoctial hours.

      The local times of beginning and end correspond to about 12:55 AM and 3:35 AM, so mid-eclipse would have been close to 2:15 AM.

Roman (ancient Rome)

      Roman history is less replete with references to eclipses than that of Greece, but there are several interesting allusions to these events in Roman writings. Some, like the total solar eclipse said by Dio Cassius, a Roman historian of the 3rd century AD, to have occurred at the time of the funeral of Agrippina the Younger (Agrippina, Julia), the mother of the Roman emperor Nero, never took place. An eclipse of the Sun recorded by the historian Livy (64/59 BC–AD 17) in a year corresponding to 190 BC is of interest to students of astronomy and of the Roman calendar alike. Although Livy notes that the event happened in early July, the calculated date is March 14. Consequently, the Roman calendar in that year must have been more than three months out of adjustment.

      What may well be an indirect allusion to a total eclipse of the Sun is recorded by Livy for a time corresponding to 188–187 BC (the consulship of Valerius Messala and Livius Salinator during the Roman Republic [see Roman Republic and Empire]):

Before the new magistrates departed for their provinces, a three-day period of prayer was proclaimed in the name of the College of Decemvirs at all the street-corner shrines because in the daytime, between about the third and fourth hours, darkness had covered everything.

      The darkness took place some time after the election of the consuls (Ides of March), and, allowing for the confusion of the Roman calendar at this time, the total eclipse of July 17, 188 BC, would be the most satisfactory explanation for the unusual morning darkness. Since the Sun is not mentioned in the text, the phenomenon possibly occurred on a cloudy day.

      The total eclipse of the Moon on the evening of June 21, 168 BC, has attracted much attention. This event occurred shortly before the defeat of Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, by the Romans at the Battle of Pydna (Pydna, Battle of). The contemporary Greek historian Polybius, in remarking on this eclipse, stated that “the report gained popular credence that it portended the eclipse of a king. This, while it lent fresh courage to the Romans, discouraged the Macedonians.” Polybius added the wry comment: “So true is the saying, ‘there are many empty things in war.' ”

Medieval (Middle Ages) European

      Following the close of the Classical age in Europe, eclipses were in general only rarely recorded by European writers for several centuries. Not until after about AD 800 did eclipses and other celestial phenomena begin to be frequently reported again, especially in monastic chronicles. Hydatius, bishop of Chaves (in Portugal), was one of the few known chroniclers of the early Middle Ages. He seems to have had an unusual interest in eclipses, and he recounted the occurrence of five such events (involving both the Sun and the Moon) between AD 447 and 464. In each case, only brief details are given, and Hydatius gives the years of occurrence in terms of the Olympiads (i.e., reckoning time from the first Olympic Games, in 776 BC). During the total lunar eclipse of March 2, AD 462 (this date is known to be accurate), the Moon is said to have been “turned into blood.” Statements of this kind are common throughout the Middle Ages, presumably inspired by the Old Testament allusion in Joel (Joel, Book of) (2:31). Similar descriptions, however, are occasionally found in non-Christian sources, as, for example, a Chinese one of AD 498.

      Given below is a selection from the vast number of extant medieval European reports of eclipses. In many cases, the date is accurately recorded, but there also are frequent instances of chronological error.

      In the year AD 733, the continuation of Bede (Bede the Venerable, Saint)'s Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (“Ecclesiastical History of the English People”) contains an early reference to an annular eclipse on a date corresponding to August 14. When the eclipse was at its height, “almost the whole of the Sun's disk seemed to be like a black and horrid shield.” Bede was the first historian to use AD dates systematically.

      An occultation of a bright star by the eclipsed Moon in AD 756 (actually the previous year) is the subject of an entry in the chronicle of Simeon Of Durham. Although Simeon lived some four centuries after the event, he is clearly quoting an eyewitness source:

Moreover, the Moon was covered with a blood-red color on the 8th day before the Kalends of December [i.e., November 24] when 15 days old, that is, the Full Moon; and then the darkness gradually decreased and it returned to its original brightness. And remarkably indeed, a bright star following the Moon itself passed through it, and after the return to brightness it preceded the Moon by the same distance as it had followed the Moon before it was obscured.

      The text gives no hint of the identity of the star. Modern computations show that the Moon was totally eclipsed on the evening of Nov. 23, AD 755. During the closing stages of the eclipse, Jupiter would have been occulted by the Moon, as seen from England. This is an example of the care with which an observer who was not an astronomer could describe a compound astronomical event without having any real understanding of what was happening.

      Several eclipses are recorded in Byzantine (Byzantine Empire) history, beginning in the 6th century AD. By far the most vivid account relates to the solar eclipse of Dec. 22, AD 968. This was penned by the contemporary chronicler Leo the Deacon:

At the winter solstice there was an eclipse of the Sun such as has never happened before.…It occurred on the 22nd day of the month of December, at the 4th hour of the day, the air being calm. Darkness fell upon the Earth and all the brighter stars revealed themselves. Everyone could see the disk of the Sun without brightness, deprived of light, and a certain dull and feeble glow, like a narrow headband, shining round the extreme parts of the edge of the disk. However, the Sun gradually going past the Moon (for this appeared covering it directly) sent out its original rays, and light filled the Earth again.

      This is the earliest account of the solar corona that can be definitely linked to a datable eclipse. Although the appearance of the corona during totality is rather impressive, early descriptions of it are extremely rare. Possibly many ancient and medieval eyewitnesses of total eclipses were so terrified by the onset of sudden darkness that they failed to notice that the darkened Sun was surrounded by a diffuse envelope of light.

      In a chronicle of the Norman rule in Sicily and southern Italy during the 11th century, Goffredo Malaterra records an eclipse of the Sun that, even though it caused alarm to some people, was evidently regarded by others as no more than a practical inconvenience:

[AD 1084] On the sixth day of the month of February between the sixth and ninth hours the Sun was obscured for the space of three hours; it was so great that any people who were working indoors could only continue if in the meantime they lit lamps. Indeed some people went from house to house to get lanterns or torches. Many were terrified.

      This eclipse actually occurred on Feb. 16, AD 1086. It was the only large eclipse visible in southern Italy for several years around this time; hence, the chronicler had mistaken both the year and day.

      The German astronomer Regiomontanus (Johannes Müller) carefully timed nine eclipses between AD 1457 and 1471. He compared his measured times with those calculated by using the Alfonsine Tables, a set of astronomical tables compiled two centuries beforehand that allowed computation of eclipses and planetary positions. His account of the lunar eclipse of Dec. 17, AD 1461, is as follows:

The Moon rose eclipsed by 10 digits of its diameter [calculated]. Indeed I merely noted 8 [digits]. Moreover, from the Alfonsine computations the end of the eclipse occurred at 1 hour and 56 minutes after sunset. At this same end of the eclipse the altitude of the star Alhioth [Capella, or Alpha Aurigae] in the east was 38 degrees 30 minutes, whereas [the altitude of] the star Aldebaran [Alpha Tauri] was 29 degrees in the east. This was in the city of Rome.

      In quoting star altitudes, Regiomontanus was following a practice favoured by medieval Arab astronomers (see below). The local times corresponding to the two altitude measurements are respectively 5:21 PM and 5:25 PM; these compare with the Alfonsine result of 6:30 PM. Hence, the tables were more than an hour in error at this date.

Medieval Islamic (Islāmic world)

 Like their Christian counterparts, medieval Islamic chroniclers recorded a number of detailed and often vivid descriptions of eclipses. Usually the exact date of occurrence is given (on the lunar calendar). A graphic narrative of the total solar eclipse of June 20, AD 1061, was recorded by the Baghdad annalist Ibn al-Jawzī, who wrote approximately a century after the event:On Wednesday, when two nights remained to the completion of the month Jumādā al-Ūlā [in AH 453], two hours after daybreak, the Sun was eclipsed totally. There was darkness and the birds fell whilst flying. The astrologers claimed that one-sixth of the Sun should have remained [uneclipsed] but nothing of it did so. The Sun reappeared after four hours and a fraction. The eclipse was not in the whole of the Sun in places other than Baghdad and its provinces.

      The date corresponds exactly to June 20, AD 1061, on the morning of which there was a total eclipse of the Sun visible in Baghdad. The duration of totality is much exaggerated, but this is common in medieval accounts of eclipses. The phenomenon of birds falling from the sky at the onset of the total phase was also noticed in Europe during several eclipses in the Middle Ages.

      Two independent accounts of the total solar eclipse of AD 1176 are recorded in contemporary Arab history. Ibn al-Athīr, who was aged 16 at the time, described the event as follows:

In this year [AH 571] the Sun was eclipsed totally and the Earth was in darkness so that it was like a dark night and the stars appeared. That was the forenoon of Friday the 29th of the month Ramaḍān at Jazīrat Ibn ʿUmar, when I was young and in the company of my arithmetic teacher. When I saw it I was very much afraid; I held on to him and my heart was strengthened. My teacher was learned about the stars and told me, “Now, you will see that all of this will go away,” and it went quickly.

      The date of the eclipse is given correctly, apart from the weekday (actually Sunday), and is equivalent to April 11, AD 1176. Calculation shows that the whole of the Sun would have been obscured over a wide region around Jazīrat Ibn ʿUmar (now Cizre, Turkey). Farther south, totality was also witnessed by the Muslim leader Saladin and his army while crossing the Orontes River near Ḥamāh (in present-day Syria). The chronicler ʿImād al-Dīn, who was with Saladin at the time, noted that “the Sun was eclipsed and it became dark in the daytime. People were frightened and stars appeared.” As it happens, ʿImād al-Dīn dates the event one year too early (AH 570); the only large eclipse visible in this region for several years was that of AD 1176.

      Lunar and solar eclipses are fairly frequently visible on Earth's surface 15 days apart, and from time to time such a pair of eclipses may be seen from one and the same location. Such was the case in the summer of AD 1433, but this occurrence caused some surprise to the contemporary Cairo chronicler al-Maqrīzī:

On Wednesday the 28th of Shawwāl [i.e., June 17], the Sun was eclipsed by about two-thirds in the sign of Cancer more than one hour after the afternoon prayer. The eclipse cleared at sunset. During the eclipse there was darkness and some stars appeared.…On Friday night the 14th of Dhū ʾl-Qaʿda [July 3], most of the Moon was eclipsed. It rose eclipsed from the eastern horizon. The eclipse cleared in the time of the nightfall prayer. This is a rarity—the occurrence of a lunar eclipse 15 days after a solar eclipse.

      The description of the loss of daylight produced by the solar eclipse is much exaggerated, but otherwise the account is fairly careful.

      Medieval Arab astronomers carefully timed the various phases of eclipses by measuring the altitude of the Sun (in the case of a solar eclipse) or of the Moon or a bright star (for a lunar obscuration). These altitude measurements were later converted to local time. For instance, the lunar eclipse of April 22, ! 981, was recorded by the Cairo astronomer Ibn Yūnus:

This lunar eclipse was in the month of Shawwāl in the year 370 of al-Hijrah [i.e., 370 AH] on the night whose morning was Friday.…We gathered to observe this eclipse at Al-Qarāfah [a district of Cairo] in the Mosque of Ibn Nasr al-Maghribī. We perceived the beginning of this eclipse when the altitude of the Moon was approximately 21 deg. About one-quarter of the Moon's diameter was eclipsed. The Moon cleared completely when about ¹/₄ of an hour remained to sunrise.

      As seen from Cairo, the Moon would reach an altitude of 21° at 3:32 AM. The time when the eclipse ended corresponds to 5:09 AM.

      Certain Arab astronomers used timings of the same lunar eclipse at two separate locations to determine the difference in longitude between the two places. Plans were made for joint observation at the two places based on prediction of the eclipse. For instance, from timings of the lunar eclipse of July 5, AD 1004, at Ghazna (now Ghaznī, Afghanistan) and Jurjāniyyah (now Kunya-Urgench, Turkm.), the Persian scholar al-Bīrūnī (Bīrūnī, al-) estimated the longitude difference between the two cities as 10.2°. The correct figure is 9.3°. This technique was later widely adopted in Europe.

Uses of eclipses for chronological (chronology) purposes

      Several examples of the value of eclipses in chronology are mentioned above in passing. No one system of dating has been continuously in use since ancient times, although some, such as the Olympiads, persisted for many centuries. Dates were frequently expressed in terms of a king's reign; years were also named after officials of whom lists have been preserved (for instance, the Assyrian Chronicle mentioned above). In such cases, it is important to be able to equate certain specific years thus defined with years before the Christian Era (BC). This correspondence can be made whenever the date of an eclipse is given in an ancient record. In this regard, eclipses have distinct advantages over other celestial phenomena such as comets: in addition to being frequently recorded in history, their dates of occurrence can be calculated exactly.

      Chinese chronology can be confirmed accurately by eclipses from the 8th century BC (during the Zhou dynasty) onward. The Chunqiu chronicle, mentioned above, notes the occurrence of 36 solar eclipses between 722 and 481 BC—the earliest surviving series of solar eclipse observations from any part of the world. The records give the date of each event in the following form: year of the ruler, lunar month, and day of the 60-day cycle. As many as 32 of the eclipses cited in the Chunqiu can be identified by modern calculations. Errors in the recorded lunar month (typically amounting to no more than a single month) are fairly common, but both the year and the recorded day of the sexagenary cycle are invariably correct.

      The chronology of Ptolemy's canon list of kings—which gives the Babylonian series from 747 to 539 BC, the Persian series from 538 to 324 BC, the Alexandrian series from 323 to 30 BC, and the Roman series from 30 BC onward—is confirmed by eclipses. The eclipse of 763 BC, recorded in the Assyrian Chronicle, makes it possible to carry the chronology back with certainty through the period covered by that eponym canon to 893 BC. Identifiable eclipses that were recorded under named Roman consuls extend back to 217 BC. The lunar eclipse seen at Pydna in Macedonia on June 21, 168 BC, and the solar eclipse observed at Rome on March 14, 190 BC, can be used to determine months in the Roman calendar in the natural year. Furthermore, eclipses occasionally help to fix the precise dates of a series of events, such as those associated with the Athenian disaster at Syracuse in 413 BC.

      The late Babylonian astronomical texts occasionally mention major historical events, as, for example, the dates when Xerxes (Xerxes I) and Alexander the Great died. To illustrate the potential of this material for chronological purposes, the date of the death of Xerxes may be accurately fixed by reference to eclipses. On a tablet that lists lunar eclipses at 18-year intervals occurs the following brief announcement between two eclipse records: “Month V, day 14 [?], Xerxes was murdered by his son.” Unfortunately, the cuneiform sign for the day of the month is damaged, and a viable reading could be anything from 14 to 18. The year is missing, but it can be deduced from the 18-year sequence as 465 BC. This identification is confirmed by calculating the dates of the two eclipses stated to have occurred in the same year that Xerxes died. The first of these happened when the Moon was in the constellation of Sagittarius, while the second took place on the 14th day of the eighth lunar month. For many years both before and after 465 BC, no such combination of eclipses can be found; it occurs only in 465 BC itself. The dates deduced for the two eclipses are June 5 and November 30 of that year. Mention of an intercalary sixth month on the same tablet enables the date of the death of Xerxes to be fixed as some time between August 4 and 8 in 465 BC.

Uses of eclipses for astronomical (astronomy) purposes

      Ancient and medieval observations of eclipses are of the highest value for investigating long-term variations in the length of the day. Early investigators such as the English astronomer Edmond Halley (Halley, Edmond) deduced from eclipse observations that the Moon's motion was subject to an acceleration. However, not until 1939 was it conclusively demonstrated (by the British astronomer Harold Spencer Jones (Jones, Sir Harold Spencer)) that only part of this acceleration was real. The remainder was apparent and was a consequence of the practice of measuring time relative to a nonuniform unit, namely, the rotation of Earth. Time determined in this way is termed Universal Time. For astronomical purposes, it is preferable to utilize an invariant time frame such as Terrestrial Time (the modern successor to Ephemeris Time)—defined by the motion of the Sun, Moon, and planets.

      Lunar and solar tidal friction, occurring especially in the seas and oceans of Earth, is now known to be responsible for a gradual decrease in the terrestrial rate of rotation. Apart from slowing down Earth's rotation, lunar tides produce a reciprocal effect on the Moon's motion, causing a gradual increase in the mean distance of the Moon from Earth (at about 3.8 cm [1.5 inches] per year) and a consequent real retardation of its motion. Hence, the length of the month is slowly increasing (at about 0.04 seconds in a century). (See also Moon: Principal characteristics of the Earth-Moon system (Moon).)

      These changes in the Moon's orbit can now be accurately fixed by lunar laser ranging, and it seems likely that they have proceeded at an essentially constant rate for many centuries. The history of Earth's rotation, however, is complicated by effects of nontidal origin, and in order to obtain maximum information it is necessary to utilize both modern and ancient observations. Telescopic observations reveal fluctuations in the length of the day on time scales of several decades, and these fluctuations are mainly attributed to interactions between the fluid core of Earth and the surrounding solid mantle. Ancient and medieval observations also suggest the presence of longer-term variations, which could be produced by alterations in the moment of inertia of Earth resulting from both the ongoing rise of land that was glaciated during the Pleistocene (Pleistocene Epoch) ice age (which ended around 10,000 years ago) and the sea-level changes associated with the freezing and melting of polar ice.

      Records of large solar eclipses preserved in literary and historical works have made an important contribution to the study of past variations in Earth's rate of rotation. In recent years, major advances have also come from the analysis of timings of lunar and solar eclipses by ancient Babylonian and medieval Chinese and Arab astronomers. Although many Babylonian texts are fragmentary, about 120 usable timings of eclipse contacts are accessible (including measurements at different phases of the same eclipse). These observations date primarily from between about 700 and 50 BC. By comparison, only a handful of similar Greek measurements are preserved, and these are less precise. Approximately 80 eclipse timings by Chinese astronomers are preserved in Chinese history. These are from two main periods: between AD 400 and 600 and later from AD 1000 to 1300. In addition, almost 50 measurements of eclipse times by medieval Arab astronomers are extant; these date from between about AD 800 and 1000 and are mainly contained in the Hakemite Tables compiled by Ibn Yūnus about AD 1005. Unfortunately, there are very few timings between 50 BC and AD 400 and again from AD 600 to 800.

      Tidal computations indicate a steady increase in the length of the mean solar day by about ¹/₄₀second every millennium. Nontidal causes produce smaller effects, generally in opposition to the main trend. Although the rate of change in the length of the day is minute, the loss of energy by Earth is huge. In measuring changes in Earth's rate of spin, the long time scale covered by ancient observations is an important asset. Approximately one million days, each marginally shorter than at present, have elapsed since the earliest reliable eclipse observations were made, about 700 BC. The contribution of individual small increments is summative. As a result, present-day computations of ancient eclipses that make no allowance for any increase in the length of the day may be as much as five or six hours ahead of the observed time of occurrence. In the case of total solar eclipses, the path of the Moon's shadow across Earth's surface may appear to be displaced by thousands of kilometres.

 The technique of using ancient observations to investigate changes in the rate of Earth's rotation is well illustrated by a total solar eclipse observed by Babylonian astronomers on a date corresponding to April 15, 136 BC. This event is recorded on two damaged tablets, a composite translation of which follows:At 24 degrees after sunrise, there was a solar eclipse beginning on the southwest side. After 18 degrees it became total such that there was complete night. Venus, Mercury, and the normal stars were visible. Jupiter and Mars, which were in their period of disappearance, were visible in that eclipse. [The shadow] moved from southwest to northeast. [Time interval of] 35 degrees for obscuration and clearing up.

      This is an exceptionally fine account of a total solar eclipse and is by far the best preserved from the ancient world. The Babylonians were able to detect a number of stars, as well as four planets, during the few minutes of darkness. Modern calculations confirm that Jupiter and Mars were too near the Sun to be observed under normal circumstances; Jupiter was very close to the solar disk.

      As noted above, time intervals were expressed by the Babylonians in degrees, each equivalent to 4 minutes of time. Hence, the eclipse is recorded as beginning 96 minutes after sunrise (or about 7:10 AM), becoming total 72 minutes later and lasting from start to finish for 140 minutes. Computations that make no allowance for changes in the length of the day displace the track of totality far to the west and imply that this eclipse was barely visible at Babylon, with as little as 15 percent of the Sun being covered. Furthermore, the computed time of onset is around noon rather than in the early morning—a difference of 3.4 hours. In order to best comply with the record, it is necessary to assume that the length of the day has increased by about ¹/₃₀ second in the intervening two millennia or so.

      Numerous eclipses of both the Sun and the Moon were timed by the Babylonian astronomers with similar care, and analysis of the available records closely confirms the above result for the change in the length of the day. Although the timing device used is likely to have been of low precision, many eclipse observations were made fairly close to the reference moments of sunrise or sunset. For these the measured intervals would be so short that clock errors may be presumed to be small.

      The many Arab and Chinese observations of both lunar and solar eclipses during the Middle Ages enable further variations in Earth's spin to be traced. The following observations of the lunar eclipse of Sept. 17, AD 1019, made by al-Bīrūnī (Bīrūnī, al-) at Ghazna attest to the quality of some of these more recent data:

When I observed it, the altitude of Capella [Alpha Aurigae] above the eastern horizon was slightly less than 60 degrees when the cut at the edge of the Full Moon had become visible; the altitude of Sirius [Alpha Canis Majoris] was [then] 17 degrees, that of Procyon [Alpha Canis Minoris] was 22 degrees and that of Aldebaran [Alpha Tauri] was 63 degrees, where all altitudes are measured from the eastern horizon.

      All four stellar measurements are in agreement that the eclipse began at around 2:15 AM, but calculations that make no allowance for any change in the length of the day indicate a time approximately 0.5 hour later. Observations such as these reveal that around AD 1000 the length of the day was about ¹/₆₅second shorter than at present.

      Combining the various results obtained from analysis of ancient and medieval data, it is possible to show that over the last 2,700 years the rate of increase in the length of the day has varied markedly. This emphasizes the importance of nontidal effects in producing changes in the rate of Earth's rotation period. In sum, the history of Earth's rotation is extremely complex.

F. Richard Stephenson

Additional Reading

General

Michael Maunder and Patrick Moore, The Sun in Eclipse (1998), is a guide for observing and photographing eclipses. Pierre Guillermier and Serge Kouchmy, Total Eclipses: Science, Observations, Myths, and Legends (1999), offers a broad cultural view of the phenomenon. J.B. Zirker, Total Eclipses of the Sun, expanded ed. (1995), describes some of the science carried out during past eclipses. Fred Espenak, Fifty Year Canon of Lunar Eclipses, 1986–2035 (1989), provides tables, maps of visibility, and diagrams of the Moon's path through Earth's shadow for every lunar eclipse. W.M. Smart, Textbook on Spherical Astronomy, 6th ed. rev. by R.M. Green (1977), presents the basic tools for calculating occultations and eclipses. Jean Meeus, Elements of Solar Eclipses, 1951–2200 (1989), provides algorithms and tables for computing the circumstances of solar eclipses. Eli Maor, June 8, 2004: Venus in Transit (2000), recounts the history of observation of the transits of Venus beginning in 1639. Leon Golub and Jay Pasachoff, The Solar Corona (1997), discusses coronal physics and recent research, including the contributions of eclipse observations. David Gossman, “Light Curves and Their Secrets,” Sky and Telescope, 78(4):410–414 (October 1989), describes the analysis of light curves of eclipsing binaries.Jack B. Zirker

Historical eclipses

F. Richard Stephenson, Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation (1997), discusses in depth ancient and medieval observations of solar and lunar eclipses and their application to studying Earth's past rotation. John M. Steele, Observations and Predictions of Eclipse Times by Early Astronomers (2000), contains a detailed investigation of all known timed eclipse records by pretelescopic astronomers. F. Richard Stephenson, “Computer Dating,” Natural History, 96(1):24–29 (January 1987), illustrates how the dates of ancient and medieval events can be refined by using historical eclipses. Works devoted to various aspects of historical astronomy including eclipses are F. Richard Stephenson, "Early Chinese Observations and Modern Astronomy," Sky and Telescope, 97(2):48–55 (February 1999), which has a section on the use of Chinese eclipse records in studying Earth's past rotation; Hermann Hunger and David Pingree, Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia (1999), an overview of recent research into ancient Mesopotamian astronomy that includes a discussion of many Assyrian and Babylonian eclipse records; and Abraham J. Sachs and Hermann Hunger, Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylonia, vol. 5 of Lunar and Planetary Texts (2001), which contains translations of many texts devoted to eclipse observations and predictions. A pair of authoritative compilations of astronomical data for more than 4,500 years of past and future eclipses are Hermann Mucke and Jean Meeus, Canon of Solar Eclipses −2003 to +2526, 2nd ed. (1992), and Canon of Lunar Eclipses −2002 to +2526, 3rd ed. (1992).F. Richard Stephenson

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