Cocoa

/koh"koh/, n.

a city in E central Florida. 16,096.

* * *

▪ food

Introduction

      highly concentrated powder made from chocolate liquor—a paste prepared from cocoa beans, the fruit of the cacao—and used in beverages and as a flavouring ingredient.

      The cocoa bean is the seed of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao), a tropical plant indigenous to the equatorial regions of the Americas. From the processed cocoa bean comes the fluid paste, or liquor, from which cocoa powder and chocolate are made. Chocolate is sold directly to the consumer as solid bars of eating chocolate, as packaged cocoa, and as baking chocolate. It is also used by confectioners as coating for candy bars and boxed or bulk chocolates, by bakery product manufacturers and bakers as coating for many types of cookies and cakes, and by ice-cream companies as coating for frozen novelties. Cocoa powders, chocolate liquor, and blends of the two are used in bulk to flavour various food products and to provide the flavours in such “chocolate” products as syrups, toppings, chocolate milk, prepared cake mixes, and pharmaceuticals.

History of use

      The cacao tree was cultivated more than 3,000 years ago by the Maya, Toltec, and Aztec, who prepared a beverage from the bean (sometimes using it as a ceremonial drink) and also used the bean as a currency.

      Columbus brought cocoa beans to Spain after his fourth voyage in 1502, and the Spanish conquistadores, arriving in Mexico in 1519, were introduced to a chocolate beverage by the Aztec. The Aztec beverage was made from sun-dried shelled beans, probably fermented in their pods. The broken kernels, or nibs, were roasted in earthen pots, then ground to paste in a concave stone, called a metate, over a small fire. Vanilla and various spices and herbs were added, and corn (maize) was sometimes used to produce milder flavour. The paste, formed into small cakes, was cooled and hardened on shiny leaves placed under a tree. The cakes were broken up, mixed with hot water, and beaten to foamy consistency with a small wooden beater, a molinet, producing the beverage called xocoatl (from Nahuatl words meaning “bitter water”).

      Too bitter for European taste, the mixture was sweetened with sugar when introduced to the Spanish court. Although Spain guarded the secret of its xocoatl beverage for almost 100 years, it reached Italy in 1606 and became popular in France with the marriage of the Spanish princess Maria Theresa to Louis XIV in 1660. In 1657 a Frenchman opened a London shop, selling solid chocolate to be made into the beverage, and chocolate houses, selling the hot beverage, soon appeared throughout Europe. By 1765 chocolate manufacture began in the American colonies at Dorchester, in Massachusetts, using cocoa beans from the West Indies.

      In 1828 C.J. van Houten of The Netherlands patented a process for obtaining “chocolate powder” by pressing much of the cocoa butter from ground and roasted cocoa beans. In 1847 the English firm of Fry and Sons combined cocoa butter, a by-product of the pressing, with chocolate liquor and sugar to produce eating chocolate, and in 1876 Daniel Peter of Switzerland added dried milk to make milk chocolate. The proliferation of flavoured, solid, and coated chocolate foods rapidly followed.

      Starting in the Americas in an area stretching from southern Mexico to the northern countries of South America, commercial cacao cultivation spread around the world to areas within 20° of the Equator where rainfall, temperatures, and soil conditions were suitable for its growth.

Cocoa bean processing

Harvesting

      Harvesting of cocoa beans can proceed all year, but the bulk of the crop is gathered in two flush periods occurring from October to February and from May to August. The ripe seed pods are cut from the trees and split open with machetes. The beans, removed from the pods with their surrounding pulp, are accumulated in leaf-covered heaps, in leaf-lined holes dug in the ground, or in large shallow boxes having perforated bottoms to provide for drainage.

fermentation

      The pulp of common grades (Forastero) is allowed to ferment for five to seven days, and the pulp of the more distinctively flavoured grades (Criollo) for one to three days. Frequent turnings dissipate excess heat and provide uniformity. During fermentation, the juicy sweatings of the pulp are drained away, the germ in the seed is killed by the increased heat, and flavour development begins. The beans become plump and full of moisture, and the interior develops a reddish brown colour and a heavy, sharp fragrance. The fermented beans are sun-dried or kiln-dried to reduce moisture content to 6–7 percent and bagged for shipment.

Cleaning, roasting, and grinding

      Cocoa beans are subjected to various cleaning processes to remove such contaminants as twigs, stones, and dust. Roasting develops flavour, reduces acidity and astringency, lowers moisture content, deepens colour, and facilitates shell removal. After roasting comes a cracking and fanning (winnowing) process, in which machines crack the shells and then separate them from the heavier nibs by means of blowers. The cell walls of the nibs are in turn broken by grinding, releasing the fat, or cocoa butter, and forming a paste called chocolate liquor, or cocoa mass. If alkalized (Dutched) chocolate liquor is to be produced, the cocoa beans may be winnowed raw; the raw nibs will be alkalized and then roasted prior to grinding.

Conching

      Conching, a flavour-developing, aerating, and emulsifying procedure performed by conche machines, requires from 4 to 72 hours, depending on the results desired and the machine type. Temperatures used in this process range from 55° to 88° C (130° to 190° F) and are closely controlled to obtain the desired flavour and uniformity.

Molding (mold)

      In molding, the chocolate is cast in small consumer-size bars or in blocks weighing about 10 pounds for use by confectioners, then subjected to cold air to produce hardening.

Cocoa bean products

Cocoa powders

      Cocoa powders are produced by pulverizing cocoa cakes, made by subjecting the chocolate liquor of about 53 to 56 percent cocoa butter content to hydraulic pressing to remove a predetermined amount of cocoa butter. The cocoa butter content remaining in the powder may range from 8 to 36 percent, with the most common commercial grades in the United States containing 11, 17, or 22 percent cocoa butter. In the United Kingdom, cocoa sold for beverage use must contain a minimum of 20 percent.

Natural process

      Natural-process cocoa powders and chocolate liquors receive no alkali treatment. Cocoa beans are normally slightly acid, with a pH of 5.2–5.8. When the pH remains unchanged, the beans produce pleasantly sharp flavours blending well in many foods and confections.

Dutch process

      Dutch-process cocoa powders and chocolate liquors are treated at the nib, liquor, or powder stage. The treatment is frequently referred to as “Dutching” because the process, first applied by C.J. van Houten in The Netherlands, was introduced as “Dutch cocoa.” In this alkalizing (alkali) process, a food-grade alkali solution may be applied in order partially to neutralize the natural cocoa acids, mostly acetic acid like that in vinegar; or it may be used to produce a strictly alkaline product, with a pH as high as 8.0. Potassium carbonate is most commonly used as an alkalizer, although other alkalies, such as sodium carbonate, may be used. In addition to altering the pH of the cocoa powder, the process darkens colour, mellows flavour, and alters taste characteristics.

Chocolate products

      Chocolate products usually require the addition of more cocoa butter to that already existing in the chocolate liquor. The various forms of chocolate are available in consumer-size packages and in large bulk sizes for use by food manufacturers and confectioners. Most European confectioners make their own chocolate; other confectioners buy chocolate from chocolate-manufacturing specialists. For large commercial orders, chocolate is shipped, warm and in liquid form, in heated sanitary tank trucks or tank cars.

Baking chocolate

      Baking (bitter) chocolate, popular for household baking, is pure chocolate liquor made from finely ground nibs, the broken pieces of roasted, shelled cocoa beans. This chocolate, bitter because it contains no sugar, can be either the natural or alkalized type.

Sweet chocolate

      Sweet chocolate, usually dark in colour, is made with chocolate liquor, sugar, added cocoa butter, and such flavourings as vanilla beans, vanillin, salt, spices, and essential oils. Sweet chocolate usually contains at least 15 percent chocolate liquor content, and most sweet chocolate contains 25–35 percent. The ingredients are blended, refined (ground to a smooth mass), and conched. Viscosity is then adjusted by the addition of more cocoa butter, lecithin (an emulsifier), or a combination of both.

Milk chocolate

      Milk chocolate is formulated by substituting whole milk solids for a portion of the chocolate liquor used in producing sweet chocolate. It usually contains at least 10 percent chocolate liquor and 12 percent whole milk solids. Manufacturers usually exceed these values, frequently going to 12–15 percent chocolate liquor and 15–20 percent whole milk solids. Milk chocolate, usually lighter in colour than sweet chocolate, is sweeter or milder in taste because of its lower content of bitter chocolate liquor. Processing is similar to that of sweet chocolate. “Bitter chocolate” refers to either baking chocolate or bittersweet chocolate. Bittersweet is similar to sweet chocolate but contains less sugar and more chocolate liquor. Minimum percentages of chocolate liquor are fixed by law in some countries, such as the United States.

Chocolate-type coatings

      Confectionery coatings are made in the same manner as similar chocolate types, but some or all of the chocolate liquor is replaced with equivalent amounts of cocoa powder, and instead of added cocoa butter, with a melting point of about 32°–33° C (90°–92° F), other vegetable fats of equal or higher melting points are used. In the United States the legal name of this coating is “sweet cocoa and vegetable fat (other than cocoa fat) coatings.” In the “chocolate” coating usually applied to ice cream and other frozen novelties, legally known as “sweet chocolate and vegetable fat (other than cocoa fat) coatings,” the added cocoa butter usual in chocolate is replaced by lower-melting-point vegetable fats, such as coconut oil.

By-products

      Shells, the major by-product of cocoa and chocolate manufacturing, represent 8–10 percent of raw cocoa bean weight and are blown off in the cracking and fanning, or winnowing, operation. They are used for fertilizer, mulch, and fuel.

Chocolate and cocoa grades

      In chocolate and cocoa products, there is no sharp difference from one grade or quality to the next. Chocolate quality depends on such factors as the blend of beans used, with about 20 commercial grades from which to choose; the kind and amount of milk or other ingredients included; and the kind and degree of roasting, refining, conching, or other type of processing employed. Chocolate and cocoa products are only roughly classified; there are hundreds of variations on the market, alone or in combination with other foods or confections.

Care and storage

      Chocolate and cocoa require storage at 18°–20° C (65°–68° F), with relative humidity below 50 percent. High (27°–32° C, or 80°–90° F) or widely fluctuating temperatures will cause fat bloom, a condition in which cocoa butter infiltrates to the surface, turning products gray or white as it recrystallizes.

      High humidity causes mustiness in cocoa powder and can lead to mold formation in cocoa powder or on chocolate. Excessive moisture can also dissolve sugar out of chocolate, redepositing it on the surface as sugar bloom, distinguished from fat bloom by its sandy texture.

Nutritive value

      Cocoa, a highly concentrated food providing approximately 1,000 calories per kilogram, provides carbohydrates, fat, protein, and minerals. Its theobromine and caffeine content produce a mildly stimulating effect. The carbohydrates and easily digested fats in chocolate make it an excellent high-energy food.

L. Russell Cook Ed.

Additional Reading

R. MacRae, R.K. Robinson, and M.J. Sadler (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology, and Nutrition, 8 vol. (1993); and Y.H. Hui (ed.), Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology, 4 vol. (1992), are general works that cover all aspects of the science of food. P. Fellows, Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practices (1988), is an introductory text.R. Paul Singh The cocoa and chocolate industry from the growing of cocoa beans to the finished cocoa and chocolate products is covered in L. Russell Cook, Chocolate Production and Use, 3rd ed., rev. by E.H. Meursing (1982). John Simmons (ed.), Cocoa Production: Economic and Botanical Perspectives (1976), a basic source, includes a worldwide survey of research. G.A.R. Wood and R.A. Lass, Cocoa, 4th ed. (1985), discusses cocoa production in various countries.L. Russell Cook Ed.

* * *