coal

—coalless, adj.

/kohl/, n.

1. a black or dark-brown combustible mineral substance consisting of carbonized vegetable matter, used as a fuel. Cf. anthracite, bituminous coal, lignite.

2. a piece of glowing, charred, or burned wood or other combustible substance.

3. charcoal (def. 1).

4. heap coals of fire on someone's head, to repay evil with good in order to make one's enemy repent.

5. rake, haul, drag, call, or take over the coals, to reprimand; scold: They were raked over the coals for turning out slipshod work.

v.t.

6. to burn to coal or charcoal.

7. to provide with coal.

v.i.

8. to take in coal for fuel.

[bef. 900; ME cole, OE col; c. D kool, G Kohle, ON kol]

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I

Solid, usually black but sometimes brown, carbon-rich material that occurs in stratified sedimentary deposits.

One of the most important fossil fuels, it is found in many parts of the world. Coal is formed by heat and pressure over millions of years on vegetation deposited in ancient shallow swamps (see peat). It varies in density, porosity, hardness, and reflectivity. The major types are lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, and anthracite. Coal has long been used as fuel, for power generation, for the production of coke, and as a source of various compounds used in synthesizing dyes, solvents, and drugs. The search for alternative energy sources has periodically revived interest in the conversion of coal into liquid fuels; technologies for coal liquefaction have been known since early in the 20th century.

II

(as used in expressions)

hard coal

bituminous coal

soft coal

Coal Measures

coal mining

European Coal and Steel Community

subbituminous coal

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▪ fossil fuel

Introduction

 solid, usually brown or black, carbon-rich material that most often occurs in stratified sedimentary deposits. It is one of the most important of the primary fossil fuels.

 Noted coal geologist James Morton Schopf defined coal as containing more than 50 percent by weight (or 70 percent by volume) carbonaceous matter produced by the compaction and induration of altered plant remains—namely, peat deposits. Different varieties of coal arise because of differences in the kinds of plant material (coal type), degree of coalification (coal rank), and range of impurities (coal grade). Although most coals occur in stratified sedimentary deposits, the deposits may later be subjected to elevated temperatures and pressures caused by igneous intrusions or deformation during orogenesis (i.e., processes of mountain building), resulting in the development of anthracite and even graphite. Although the concentration of carbon in the Earth's crust does not exceed 0.1 percent by weight, it is indispensable to life and constitutes humankind's main source of energy.

      This article considers the geological origins, structure, and properties of coal, its usage throughout human history, and current world distribution. For a discussion of the coal-extraction process, see the article coal mining. For a more complete treatment of the processes involved in coal combustion, see the article coal utilization.

History of the use of coal

In ancient times

      The discovery of the use of fire helped to distinguish humans from other animals. Early fuels were primarily wood (and charcoal derived from it), straw, and dried dung. References to the early uses of coal are meagre. Aristotle referred to “bodies which have more of earth than of smoke” and called them “coal-like substances.” (It should be noted that biblical references to coal are to charcoal rather than to the rock, coal.) Coal was used commercially by the Chinese long before it was utilized in Europe. Although no authentic record is available, coal from the Fushun mine in northeastern China may have been employed to smelt copper (copper processing) as early as 1000 BC. Stones used as fuel were said to have been produced in China during the Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 220).

In Europe

      Coal cinders found among Roman ruins in England suggest that the Romans were familiar with its use before AD 400. The first documented proof that coal was mined in Europe was provided by the monk Reinier of Liège, who wrote (about 1200) of black earth very similar to charcoal used by metalworkers. Many references to coal mining in England, Scotland, and the European continent began to appear in the writings of the 13th century. Coal was, however, used only on a limited scale until the early 18th century, when Abraham Darby (Darby, Abraham) of England and others developed methods of using coke made from coal in blast furnaces and forges. Successive metallurgical and engineering developments—most notably the invention of the coal-burning steam engine by James Watt (Watt, James)—engendered an almost insatiable demand for coal.

In the New World

      Up to the time of the American Revolution, most coal used in the American colonies came from England or Nova Scotia. Wartime shortages and the needs of the munitions manufacturers, however, spurred small American coal-mining operations such as those in Virginia on the James River near Richmond. By the early 1830s mining companies had emerged along the Ohio, Illinois, and Mississippi rivers and in the Appalachian region. As in European countries, the introduction of the steam locomotive gave the American coal industry a tremendous impetus. Continued expansion of industrial activity in the United States and in Europe further promoted the use of coal.

Modern utilization

Coal as an energy source

      Coal is an abundant natural resource that can be used as a source of energy, as a chemical feedstock from which numerous synthetic compounds (e.g., dyes, oils, waxes, pharmaceuticals, and pesticides) can be derived, and in the production of coke for metallurgical processes. Coal is a major source of energy in the production of electrical power using steam generation. In addition, gasification (coal utilization) and liquefaction (coal utilization) produce gaseous and liquid fuels that can be easily transported (e.g., by pipeline) and conveniently stored in tanks.

Conversion

      In general, coal can be considered a hydrogen-deficient hydrocarbon with a hydrogen-to-carbon ratio near 0.8, as compared with a liquid hydrocarbons ratio near 2 and a gaseous hydrocarbons ratio near 4. For this reason, any process used to convert coal to alternative fuels must add hydrogen (either directly or in the form of water). Gasification refers to the conversion of coal to a mixture of gases, including carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, and other hydrocarbons, depending on the conditions involved. Gasification may be accomplished either in situ or in processing plants. In situ gasification is accomplished by controlled, incomplete burning of a coal bed underground while adding air and steam. The gases are withdrawn and may be burned to produce heat or generate electricity, or they may be used as synthesis gas in indirect liquefaction (thermal fusion) or the production of chemicals.

      Liquefaction may be either direct or indirect (i.e., by using the gaseous products obtained by breaking down the chemical structure of coal). Four general methods are used for liquefaction: (1) pyrolysis and hydrocarbonization (coal is heated in the absence of air or in a stream of hydrogen), (2) solvent extraction (coal hydrocarbons are selectively dissolved and hydrogen is added to produce the desired liquids), (3) catalytic liquefaction (hydrogenation takes place in the presence of a catalyst—for example, zinc chloride), and (4) indirect liquefaction (carbon monoxide and hydrogen are combined in the presence of a catalyst).

Problems associated with the use of coal

Hazards of mining and preparation

      Coal is abundant; assuming current rates of usage and production do not change, estimates of reserves indicate that enough coal remains to last more than 200 years. There are, however, a variety of problems associated with the use of coal.

      Mining (coal mining) operations are hazardous. Each year hundreds of coal miners lose their lives or are seriously injured. Major mine hazards include roof falls, rock bursts, and fires and explosions. The latter result when flammable gases (such as methane) trapped in the coal are released during mining operations and accidentally are ignited. Promising research in the extraction of methane from coal beds prior to mining is expected to lead to safer mines and provide a source of natural gas that has been wasted for so long. Also, the repeated inhalation of coal dust over extended periods of time can result in serious health problems—for example, black lung.

      Coal mines and coal-preparation plants have caused much environmental damage (pollution). Surface areas exposed during mining, as well as coal and rock waste (which were often dumped indiscriminately), weathered rapidly, producing abundant sediment and soluble chemical products such as sulfuric acid and iron sulfates. Nearby streams became clogged with sediment, iron oxides stained rocks, and “acid mine drainage” caused marked reductions in the numbers of plants and animals living in the vicinity. Potentially toxic elements, leached from the exposed coal and adjacent rocks, were released into the environment. Since the 1970s, stricter laws have significantly reduced the environmental damage caused by coal mining in developed countries, though more-severe damage continues to occur in many developing countries.

Hazards of utilization

      Coal utilization can cause problems. During the incomplete burning or conversion of coal, many compounds are produced, some of which are carcinogenic. The burning of coal also produces sulfur and nitrogen oxides that react with atmospheric moisture to produce sulfuric and nitric acids—so-called acid rain. In addition, it produces particulate matter (fly ash) that can be transported by winds for many hundreds of kilometres and solids (bottom ash and slag) that must be disposed of. Trace elements originally present in the coal may escape as volatiles (e.g., chlorine and mercury) or be concentrated in the ash (e.g., arsenic and barium). Some of these pollutants can be trapped by using such devices as electrostatic precipitator (electrostatic precipitation)s, baghouses, and scrubbers. Current research on alternative means for combustion (e.g., fluidized bed combustion, magnetohydrodynamics, and low nitrogen dioxide burners) is expected to provide efficient and environmentally attractive methods for extracting energy from coal. Regardless of the means used for combustion, acceptable ways of disposing of the waste products have to be found.

      The burning of all fossil fuels (oil and natural gas included) releases large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the atmosphere. The CO₂ molecules allow the shorter-wavelength rays from the Sun to enter the atmosphere and strike the Earth's surface, but they do not allow much of the long-wave radiation reradiated from the surface to escape into space. The CO₂ absorbs this upward-propagating infrared radiation and reemits a portion of it downward, causing the lower atmosphere to remain warmer than it would otherwise be. Whereas the greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring process, its enhancement due to increased release of greenhouse gases (CO₂ and other gases, such as methane and ozone) is called global warming. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), there is substantial evidence that higher concentrations of CO₂ and other greenhouse gases have increased the mean temperature of the Earth since 1950. This increase is probably the cause of noticeable reductions in snow cover and sea ice extent in the Northern Hemisphere. In addition, a worldwide increase in sea level and a decrease in mountain glacier extent have been documented. Technologies being considered to reduce carbon dioxide levels include biological fixation, cryogenic recovery, disposal in the oceans and aquifers, and conversion to methanol.

Origin of coal

Coal-forming materials

Plant matter

      It is generally accepted that most coals formed from plants that grew in and adjacent to swamps (swamp) in warm, humid regions. Material derived from these plants accumulated in low-lying areas that remained wet most of the time and was converted to peat through the activity of microorganisms. (It should be noted that peat can occur in temperate regions [e.g., Ireland and the state of Michigan in the United States] and even in subarctic regions [e.g., the Scandinavian countries].) Under certain conditions this organic material continued to accumulate and was later converted into coal. Much of the plant matter that accumulates on the surface of the Earth is never converted to peat or to coal, because it is removed by fire or organic decomposition. Hence, the vast coal deposits found in ancient rocks must represent periods during which several favourable biological and physical processes occurred at the same time.

      Evidence that coal was derived from plants comes from three principal sources. First, lignites (lignite), the lowest coal rank, often contain recognizable plant remains. Second, sedimentary rock layers above, below, and adjacent to coal seams contain plant fossils in the form of impressions and carbonized films (e.g., leaves and stems) and casts of larger parts such as roots, branches, and trunks. Third, even coals of advanced rank may reveal the presence of precursor plant material. When examined microscopically in thin sections or polished blocks, cell walls, cuticles (the outer wall of leaves), spores, and other structures can still be recognized (see below Macerals (coal)). Algal (algae) and fungal remains also may be present. ( algae are major components in boghead coal (torbanite), a type of sapropelic coal.)

The fossil record

       anthracite (the highest coal rank) material, which appears to have been derived from algae, is known from the Proterozoic Eon of Precambrian time (approximately 540 million to 2.5 billion years ago). siliceous rocks of the same age contain fossil algae and fungi (fungus). These early plants were primarily protists (protist) (solitary or aggregate unicellular organisms that include yellow-green algae, golden-brown algae, and diatoms) that lived in aqueous environments. It was not until the Late Silurian Period (approximately 420 million years ago) that plants are known to have developed the ability to survive on land. Fossil organisms that are reflective of this dramatic evolutionary event have been discovered in Wales and Australia.

      Evidence for early coastal forests is preserved in strata of the Late Devonian Period (approximately 360 to 385 million years old). By the latter half of the Paleozoic Era, plants had undergone extensive evolution and occupied many previously vacant environments (this phenomenon is sometimes called adaptive radiation).

 There were two major eras of coal formation in geologic history. The older includes the Carboniferous Period (sometimes divided into the Mississippian (Mississippian Subperiod) and Pennsylvanian period (Pennsylvanian Subperiod)s, from approximately 300 to 360 million years ago) and the Permian Period (from approximately 250 to 300 million years ago). Much of the bituminous coal of eastern North America and Europe is Carboniferous in age. Most coals in Siberia, eastern Asia, and Australia are of Permian origin. The younger era began about 135 million years ago during the Cretaceous Period and reached its peak approximately 2 to 65 million years ago, during the Paleogene and Neogene periods of the Cenozoic Era. Most of the coals that formed during this second era are lignites and subbituminous (subbituminous coal) (or brown) coals. These are widespread in such areas as western North America (including Alaska), southern France and central Europe, Japan, and Indonesia.

      Late Paleozoic flora included sphenopsids, lycopsids, pteropsids, and the Cordaitales. The sphenopsid Calamites grew as trees in swamps. Calamites had long, jointed stems with sparse foliage. The lycopsids included species of Lepidodendron and Sigillaria (up to 30 metres [about 100 feet] tall) that grew in somewhat drier areas. Pteropsids (pteropsid) included both true ferns (Filicineae) and extinct seed ferns (Pteridospermaphyta), which grew in relatively dry environments. The Cordaitales, which had tall stems and long, narrow, palmlike leaves, also favoured drier areas. During the Cretaceous and Cenozoic the angiosperms (flowering plants) evolved, producing a diversified flora from which the younger coals developed.

Formation processes

peat

      Although peat is used as a source of energy, it is not usually considered a coal. It is the precursor material from which coals are derived, and the process by which peat is formed is studied in existing swamps in many parts of the world (e.g., in the Okefenokee Swamp of Georgia, U.S., and along the southwestern coast of New Guinea). The formation of peat is controlled by several factors including (1) the evolutionary development of plant life, (2) the climatic conditions (warm enough to sustain plant growth and wet enough to permit the partial decomposition of the plant material and preserve the peat), and (3) the physical conditions of the area (its geographic position relative to the sea or other bodies of water, rates of subsidence or uplift, and so forth). Warm moist climates are thought to produce broad bands of bright coal. Cooler temperate climates, on the other hand, are thought to produce detrital coal with relatively little bright coal.

      Initially, the area on which a future coal seam may be developed must be uplifted so that plant growth can be established. Areas near seacoasts or low-lying areas near streams stay moist enough for peat to form, but elevated swamps (some bogs and moors) can produce peat only if the annual precipitation exceeds annual evaporation and little percolation or drainage occurs. Thick peat deposits necessary for coal formation develop at sites where the following conditions exist: slow, continuous subsidence; the presence of such natural structures as levees, beaches, and bars that give protection from frequent inundation; and a restricted supply of incoming sediments that would interrupt peat formation. In such areas the water may become quite stagnant (except for a few rivers traversing the swamp), and plant material can continue to accumulate. Microorganisms attack the plant material and convert it to peat. Very close to the surface where oxygen is still readily available (aerobic, or oxidizing, conditions), the decomposition of the plant material produces mostly gaseous and liquid products. With increasing depth, however, the conditions become increasingly anaerobic (reducing), and molds and peats develop. The process of peat formation—biochemical coalification—is most active in the upper few metres of a peat deposit. Fungi are not found below about 0.5 metre (about 18 inches), and most forms of microbial life are eliminated at depths below about 10 metres (about 30 feet). If either the rate of subsidence or the rate of influx of new sediment increases, the peat will be buried and soon thereafter the coalification process—geochemical coalification—begins. The cycle may be repeated many times, which accounts for the numerous coal seams found in some sedimentary basins.

Coalification

      The general sequence of coalification is from lignite to subbituminous (subbituminous coal) to bituminous (bituminous coal) to anthracite (see below Coal types and ranks (coal)). Since microbial activity ceases within a few metres of the Earth's surface, the coalification process must be controlled primarily by changes in physical conditions that take place with depth. Some coal characteristics are determined by events that occur during peat formation—e.g., charcoal-like material in coal is attributed to fires that occurred during dry periods while peat was still forming.

      Three major physical factors—duration, increasing temperature, and increasing pressure—may influence the coalification process. In laboratory experiments artificially prepared coals are influenced by the duration of the experiment, but in nature the length of time is substantially longer and the overall effect of time remains undetermined. Low-rank coal (i.e., brown coal) in the Moscow Basin was deposited during Carboniferous time but was not buried deeply and never reached a higher rank. The most widely accepted explanation is that coalification takes place in response to increasing temperature. In general, temperature increases with depth. This geothermal gradient averages about 30 °C (about 85 °F) per kilometre, but the gradient ranges from less than 10 °C (50 °F) per kilometre in regions undergoing very rapid subsidence to more than 100 °C (212 °F) per kilometre in areas of igneous activity. Measurements of thicknesses of sedimentary cover and corresponding coal ranks suggest that temperatures lower than 200 °C (about 390 °F) are sufficient to produce coal of anthracite rank. The effect of increasing pressure due to depth of burial is not considered to cause coalification. In fact, increasing overburden pressure might have the opposite effect if volatile compounds such as methane that must escape during coalification are retained. Pressure may influence the porosity and moisture content of coal.

Coal types and ranks

      Coals may be classified in several ways. One mode of classification is by coal type; such types have some genetic implications because they are based on the organic materials present and the coalification processes that produced the coal. The most useful and widely applied coal-classification schemes are those based on the degree to which coals have undergone coalification. Such varying degrees of coalification are generally called coal ranks (or classes). In addition to the scientific value of classification schemes of this kind, the determination of rank has a number of practical applications. Many coal properties are in part determined by rank, including the amount of heat produced during combustion, the amount of gaseous products released upon heating, and the suitability of the coals for liquefaction or for producing coke.

Coal types

Macerals (maceral)

      Coals contain both organic and inorganic phases. The latter consist either of minerals such as quartz and clays that may have been brought in by flowing water (or wind activity) or of minerals such as pyrite and marcasite that formed in place (authigenic). Some formed in living plant tissues, and others formed later during peat formation or coalification. Some pyrite (and marcasite) is present in micrometre-sized spheroids called framboids (named for their raspberry-like shape) that formed quite early. Framboids are very difficult to remove by conventional coal-cleaning processes.

      By analogy to the term mineral, British botanist Marie C. Stopes (Stopes, Marie) proposed in 1935 the term maceral to describe organic constituents present in coals. The word is derived from the Latin macerare, meaning “to macerate.” (Mineral names often end in “-ite.” The corresponding ending for macerals is “-inite.”) Maceral nomenclature has been applied differently by some European coal petrologists who studied polished blocks of coal using reflected-light microscopy (their terminology is based on morphology, botanical affinity, and mode of occurrence) and by some North American petrologists who studied very thin slices (thin sections) of coal using transmitted-light microscopy. Various nomenclature systems have been used.

      Three major maceral groups are generally recognized: vitrinite, liptinite (formerly called exinite), and inertinite. The vitrinite group is the most abundant, constituting as much as 50 to 90 percent of many North American coals. Vitrinites are derived primarily from cell walls and woody tissues. They show a wide range of reflectance values (discussed below), but in individual samples these values tend to be intermediate compared with those of the other maceral groups. Several varieties are recognized—e.g., telinite (the brighter parts of vitrinite that make up cell walls) and collinite (clear vitrinite that occupies the spaces between cell walls).

      The liptinite group makes up 5 to 15 percent of many coals. Liptinites are derived from waxy or resinous plant parts, such as cuticles, spores, and wound resins. Their reflectance values are usually the lowest in an individual sample. Several varieties are recognized, including sporinite (spores are typically preserved as flattened spheroids), cutinite (part of cross sections of leaves, often with crenulated surfaces), and resinite (ovoid and sometimes translucent masses of resin). The liptinites may fluoresce under ultraviolet light, but with increasing rank their optical properties approach those of the vitrinites, and they become indistinguishable.

      The inertinite group makes up 5 to 40 percent of most coals. Their reflectance values are usually the highest in a given sample. The most common inertinite maceral is fusinite, which has a charcoal-like appearance with obvious cell texture. The cells may be either empty or filled with mineral matter, and the cell walls may have been crushed during compaction (bogen texture). Inertinites are derived from strongly altered or degraded plant material that is thought to have been produced during the formation of peat; in particular, charcoal produced by a fire in a peat swamp is preserved as fusinite.

Coal rock types

      Coals may be classified on the basis of their macroscopic appearance (generally referred to as coal rock type, lithotype, or kohlentype). Four main types are recognized:

● Vitrain (Glanzkohle or charbon brillant), which is characterized by a brilliant black lustre and composed primarily of the maceral group vitrinite, which is derived from the woody tissue of large plants. Vitrain is brittle and tends to break into angular fragments; however, thick vitrain layers show conchoidal fractures when broken. Vitrain occurs in narrow, sometimes markedly uniform, bright bands that are about 3 to 10 mm (about 0.1 to 0.4 inch) thick. Vitrain was probably formed under somewhat drier surface conditions than the lithotypes clarain and durain. On burial, stagnant groundwater prevented the complete decomposition of the woody plant tissues.

● Clarain (Glanzstreifenkohle or charbon semi-brillant), which has an appearance between those of vitrain and durain and is characterized by alternating bright and dull black laminae (commonly less than 1 mm thick). The brightest layers are composed chiefly of the maceral vitrinite and the duller layers of the other maceral groups, liptinite and inertinite. Clarain exhibits a silky lustre less brilliant than that of vitrain. It seems to have originated under conditions that alternated between those in which durain and vitrain were formed.

● Durain (Mattkohle or charbon mat), which is characterized by a hard, granular texture and composed of the maceral groups liptinite and inertinite as well as relatively large amounts of inorganic minerals. Durain occurs in layers more than 3 to 10 mm (about 0.1 to 0.4 inch) thick, although layers more than 10 cm (about 4 inches) thick have been recognized. Durains are usually dull black to dark gray in colour. Durain is thought to have formed in peat deposits below water level, where only liptinite and inertinite components resisted decomposition and where inorganic minerals accumulated from sedimentation.

● Fusain (Faserkohle or charbon fibreux), which is commonly found in silky and fibrous lenses that are very thin, only millimetres thick and centimetres long. Most fusain is extremely soft and crumbles readily into a fine, sootlike powder that soils the hands. Fusain is composed mainly of fusinite (carbonized woody plant tissue) and semifusinite from the maceral group inertinite, which is rich in carbon and highly reflective. It closely resembles charcoal, both chemically and physically, and is believed to have been formed in peat deposits swept by forest fires, by fungal activity that generated intense heat, or by subsurface oxidation of coal.

Banded and nonbanded coals

       Coal type according to appearanceThe term coal type is also employed to distinguish between banded coals and nonbanded coals (see table (Coal type according to appearance)). Banded coals contain varying amounts of vitrinite and opaque material. They include bright coal, which contains more than 80 percent vitrinite, and splint coal, which contains more than 30 percent opaque matter. The nonbanded varieties include boghead coal, which has a high percentage of algal remains, and cannel coal with a high percentage of spores. The usage of all the above terms is quite subjective.

Ranking by coalification

Hydrocarbon content

      The oldest coal-classification system was based on criteria of chemical composition. Developed in 1837 by the French chemist Henri-Victor Regnault (Regnault, Henri-Victor), it was improved in later systems that classified coals on the basis of their hydrogen and carbon content. However, because the relationships between chemistry and other coal properties are complex, such classifications are rarely used for practical purposes today.

Chemical content and properties

  The most commonly employed systems of classification are those based on analyses that can be performed relatively easily in the laboratory—for example, determining the percentage of volatile matter lost upon heating to about 950 °C (about 1,750 °F) or the amount of heat released during combustion of the coal under standard conditions. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) assigns ranks to coals on the basis of fixed carbon content, volatile matter content, and calorific value (see the table—>). In addition to the major ranks (lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, and anthracite), each rank may be subdivided into coal groups such as high-volatile A bituminous coal. Other designations, such as coking coal and steam coal, have been applied to coals, but they tend to differ from country to country (see illustration—>).

      Coal analyses may be presented in the form of “proximate” and “ultimate” analyses, whose analytical conditions are prescribed by organizations such as the ASTM. A typical proximate analysis includes the moisture, ash, volatile matter, and fixed carbon contents. (Fixed carbon is the material, other than ash, that does not vaporize when heated in the absence of air. It is usually determined by subtracting the sum of the first three values—moisture, ash, and volatile matter—in weight percent from 100 percent.) It is important for economic reasons to know the moisture and ash contents of a coal because they do not contribute to the heating value of a coal. In most cases ash becomes an undesirable residue and a source of pollution, but for some purposes (e.g., use as a chemical feedstock or for liquefaction) the presence of mineral matter may be desirable. Most of the heat value of a coal comes from its volatile matter, excluding moisture, and fixed carbon content. For most coals it is necessary to measure the actual amount of heat released upon combustion (expressed in megajoules per kilogram or British thermal units per pound).

      Ultimate analyses are used to determine the carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, ash, oxygen, and moisture contents of a coal. For specific applications, other chemical analyses may be employed. These may involve, for example, identifying the forms of sulfur present. Sulfur may occur in the form of sulfide minerals ( pyrite and marcasite), sulfate minerals ( gypsum), or organically bound sulfur. In other cases the analyses may involve determining the trace elements present (e.g., mercury, chlorine), which may influence the suitability of a coal for a particular purpose or help to establish methods for reducing environmental pollution and so forth.

      Virtually all classification systems use the percentage of volatile matter present to distinguish coal ranks. In the ASTM classification, high-volatile A bituminous (and higher ranks) are classified on the basis of their volatile matter content. Coals of lower rank are classified primarily on the basis of their heat values, because of their wide ranges in volatile matter content (including moisture). The agglomerating character of a coal refers to its ability to soften and swell when heated and to form cokelike masses that are used in the manufacture of steel. The most suitable coals for agglomerating purposes are in the bituminous rank.

Structure and properties of coal

Organic compounds (organic compound)

      The plant material from which coal is derived is composed of a complex mixture of organic compounds, including cellulose, lignin, fats, waxes, and tannins. As peat formation and coalification proceed, these compounds, which have more or less open structures, are broken down, and new compounds—primarily aromatic (aromatic compound) (benzenelike) and hydroaromatic—are produced. In vitrinite these compounds are connected by cross-linking oxygen, sulfur, and molecules such as methylene. During coalification, volatile phases rich in hydrogen and oxygen (e.g., water, carbon dioxide, and methane) are produced and escape from the mass; hence, the coal becomes progressively richer in carbon. The classification of coal by rank is based on these changes—i.e., as coalification proceeds, the amount of volatile matter gradually decreases and the amount of fixed carbon increases. As volatiles are expelled, more carbon-to-carbon linkages occur in the remaining coal until, having reached the anthracite rank, it takes on many of the characteristics of the end product of the metamorphism of carbonaceous material—namely, graphite. Coals pass through several structural states as the bonds between the aromatic nuclei increase.

Properties

      Many of the properties of coal are strongly rank-dependent, although other factors such as maceral composition and the presence of mineral matter also influence its properties. Several techniques have been developed for studying the physical and chemical properties of coal, including density measurements, X-ray diffraction, scanning and transmission electron microscopy, infrared spectrophotometry, mass spectroscopy, gas chromatography, thermal analysis (differential thermal analysis), and electrical, optical, and magnetic measurements.

density

      Knowledge of the physical properties of coal is important in coal preparation and utilization. For example, coal density ranges from approximately 1.1 to about 1.5 megagrams per cubic metre, or grams per cubic centimetre (1 megagram per cubic metre equals 1 gram per cubic centimetre). Coal is slightly denser than water (1.0 megagram per cubic metre) and significantly less dense than most rock and mineral matter (e.g., shale has a density of about 2.7 megagrams per cubic metre and pyrite of 5.0 megagrams per cubic metre). Density differences make it possible to improve the quality of a coal by removing most of the rock matter and sulfide-rich fragments by means of heavy liquid separation (fragments with densities greater than about 1.5 megagrams per cubic metre settle out while the coal floats on top of the liquid). Devices such as cyclones and shaker tables also separate coal particles from rock and pyrite on the basis of their different densities.

Porosity

      Coal density is controlled in part by the presence of pores that persist throughout coalification. Measurement of pore sizes and pore distribution is difficult; however, there appear to be three size ranges of pores: (1) macropores (diameter greater than 50 nanometres), (2) mesopores (diameter 2 to 50 nanometres), and (3) micropores (diameter less than 2 nanometres). (One nanometre is equal to 10⁻⁹ metre.) Most of the effective surface area of a coal—about 200 square metres per gram—is not on the outer surface of a piece of coal but is located inside the coal in its pores. The presence of pore space is important in the production of coke, gasification, liquefaction, and the generation of high-surface-area carbon for purifying water and gases. From the standpoint of safety, coal pores may contain significant amounts of adsorbed methane that may be released during mining operations and form explosive mixtures with air. The risk of explosion can be reduced by adequate ventilation during mining or by prior removal of coal-bed methane.

Reflectivity

      An important property of coal is its reflectivity (or reflectance)—i.e., its ability to reflect light. Reflectivity is measured by shining a beam of monochromatic light (with a wavelength of 546 nanometres) on a polished surface of the vitrinite macerals in a coal sample and measuring the percentage of the light reflected with a photometer. Vitrinite is used because its reflectivity changes gradually with increasing rank. Fusinite reflectivities are too high due to its origin as charcoal, and liptinites tend to disappear with increasing rank. Although little of the incident light is reflected (ranging from a few tenths of a percent to 12 percent), the value increases with rank and can be used to determine the rank of most coals without measuring the percentage of volatile matter present.

      The study of coals (and coaly particles called phyterals) in sedimentary basins containing oil and/or gas reveals a close relationship between coalification and the maturation of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons. During the initial stages of coalification (to a reflectivity of almost 0.5 and near the boundary between subbituminous and high-volatile C bituminous coal), hydrocarbon generation produces chiefly methane. The maximum generation of liquid petroleum occurs during the development of high-volatile bituminous coals (in the reflectivity range from roughly 0.5 to about 1.3). With increasing depth and temperature, petroleum liquids break down and, finally, only natural gas (methane) remains. Geologists can use coal reflectivity to anticipate the potential for finding liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons as they explore for petroleum.

Other properties

      Other properties, such as hardness (Mohs hardness), grindability, ash-fusion temperature, and free-swelling index (a visual measurement of the amount of swelling that occurs when a coal sample is heated in a covered crucible), may affect coal mining and preparation, as well as the way in which a coal is utilized. Hardness and grindability determine the kinds of equipment used for mining, crushing, and grinding coals in addition to the amount of power consumed in their operation. Ash-fusion temperature influences furnace design and operating conditions. The free-swelling index provides preliminary information concerning the suitability of a coal for coke production.

World distribution of coal

General occurrence

 Coal is a widespread resource of energy and chemicals. Although terrestrial plants necessary for the development of coal did not become abundant until Carboniferous time, large sedimentary basins containing Carboniferous and younger rocks are known on virtually every continent, including Antarctica The presence of large coal deposits in regions that now have arctic or subarctic climates (such as Alaska and Siberia) is due to climatic changes and to the tectonic motion (plate tectonics) of crustal plates that moved ancient continental masses over the Earth's surface, sometimes through subtropical and even tropical regions. The absence of coal in some areas (such as Greenland and much of northern Canada) results from the fact that the rocks found there are older than Carboniferous period and that these regions, known as shields, lacked the abundant terrestrial plant life needed for the formation of major coal deposits.

Resources and reserves

      World coal reserves and resources are difficult to assess. Although some of the difficulty stems from the lack of accurate data for individual countries, two fundamental problems make these estimates difficult and subjective. The first problem concerns differences in the definition of terms such as proven reserves (generally only those quantities that are recoverable) and geological resources (generally the total amount of coal present, whether or not recoverable at present).

      The proven reserves for any commodity should provide a reasonably accurate estimate of the amount that can be recovered under existing operating and economic conditions. To be economically mineable, a coal bed must have a minimum thickness (about 0.6 metre; 2 feet) and be buried less than some maximum depth (roughly 2,000 metres; 6,600 feet) below the Earth's surface. These values of thickness and depth are not fixed but change with coal quality, demand, the ease with which overlying rocks can be removed (in surface mining) or a shaft sunk to reach the coal seam (in underground mining), and so forth. The development of new mining techniques may increase the amount of coal that can be extracted relative to the amount that cannot be removed. For example, in underground mining (which accounts for about 60 percent of world coal production), conventional mining methods leave behind large pillars of coal to support the overlying rocks and recover only about half of the coal present. On the other hand, longwall mining, in which the equipment removes continuous parallel bands of coal, may recover nearly all the coal present.

       World proved reserves of coalThe second problem, which concerns the estimation of reserves, is the rate at which a commodity is consumed. When considering the worldwide reserves of coal, the number of years that coal will be available may be more important than the total amount of coal resources. At present rates of consumption, world coal reserves should last more than 300–500 years. The table (World proved reserves of coal) indicates the present quantity of proven coal reserves. A large amount of additional coal is present in the Earth but cannot be recovered at this time. These resources, sometimes called “geologic resources,” are even more difficult to estimate, but they are thought to be as much as 15 times greater than the amount of proven reserves.

 One ton of coal equivalent equals 1 metric ton (2,205 pounds) of coal with a heating value of 29.3 megajoules per kilogram (12,600 British thermal units per pound). These values suggest that the United States has the largest amount of recoverable coal. Nearly 80 percent of the world's recoverable coal resources are controlled by seven countries: the United States (about 27 percent), Russia (about 17 percent), China (about 13 percent), India (about 10 percent), South Africa (about 5 percent), Ukraine (about 4 percent), and Kazakhstan (about 3 percent).

Otto C. Kopp

Additional Reading

G.H. Taylor et al., Organic Petrology (1998); BP/Amoco, BP Statistical Review of World Energy (2006); and the World Energy Council, Survey of Energy Resources (2004), provide data on proven reserves.Simon Walker, Major Coalfields of the World (2000), provides information about coal resources worldwide. Information on the organic composition of coals, with numerous references to earlier literature, may be found in D.W. van Krevelen, Coal: Typology, Physics, Chemistry, Constitution, 3rd, completely rev. ed. (1993); and Duncan Murchison and T. Stanley Westoll (eds.), Coal and Coal-Bearing Strata (1968). Robert A. Meyers (ed.), Coal Structure (1982), examines the nature and origin of coal structure and porosity. Douglas C. Peters (ed.), Geology in Coal Resource Utilization (1991), provides information concerning coal resources, reserve estimation, coal utilization, and the environment.Otto C. Kopp

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