circus

—circusy, adj.

/serr"keuhs/, n., pl. circuses.

1. a large public entertainment, typically presented in one or more very large tents or in an outdoor or indoor arena, featuring exhibitions of pageantry, feats of skill and daring, performing animals, etc., interspersed throughout with the slapstick antics of clowns. Cf. big top.

2. a troupe of performers, esp. a traveling troupe, that presents such entertainments, together with officials, other employees, and the company's performing animals, traveling wagons, tents, cages, and equipment.

3. a circular arena surrounded by tiers of seats, in which public entertainments are held; arena.

4. (in ancient Rome)

a. a large, usually oblong or oval, roofless enclosure, surrounded by tiers of seats rising one above another, for chariot races, public games, etc.

b. an entertainment given in this Roman arena, as a chariot race or public game: The Caesars appeased the public with bread and circuses.

5. anything resembling the Roman circus, or arena, as a natural amphitheater or a circular range of houses.

6. See flying circus.

7. Brit. an open circle, square, or plaza where several streets converge: Piccadilly Circus.

8. fun, excitement, or uproar; a display of rowdy sport.

9. Obs. a circlet or ring.

[1350-1400; ME < L: circular region of the sky, oval space in which games were held, akin to (or borrowed from) Gk kírkos ring, circle]

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Entertainment or spectacle featuring animal acts and human feats of daring.

The modern circus was founded in England in 1768 by the bareback rider Philip Astley (1742–1814), who built stands around his performance ring and opened Astley's Amphitheatre. One of his riders later established the Royal Circus (1782), the first modern use of the term. The first U.S. circus opened in Philadelphia in 1793. Horse acts were later joined by wild-animal acts. After the invention of the flying trapeze by Jules Léotard (1859), aerial acts were featured. P.T. Barnum expanded the traditional circus by adding two rings to create the three-ring circus (1881) and augmented it with sideshow performers. Circuses traveled throughout the U.S., Europe, and Latin America, performing in a tent (the Big Top) into the 1950s. Today circuses usually perform in permanent buildings, though small troupes still travel with tents in some regions. By the late 20th century, notable circuses also had developed in Africa, India, Spain, Brazil, and Mexico. Perhaps the most innovative trend in circuses at the turn of the 21st century was the establishment of companies such as the Cirque du Soleil; these companies employed no animals, instead emphasizing acts of human skill and daring and integrating elements of contemporary music and dance into the overall performance.

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▪ theatrical entertainment

Introduction

      an entertainment or spectacle usually consisting of trained animal acts and exhibitions of human skill and daring. The word has the same root as circle and circumference, recalling the distinctive environment in which such entertainment is presented—the ring, a circular performance area usually bounded by a short fence (or “curb”). The ring may be enclosed in an arena, in a building designed for circus performances, or in a tent, and it is generally surrounded by tiers of seats for spectators.

      Variations to this definition exist, however, and any attempt at a strict, all-inclusive definition reduces the term's application to a particular nationality, generation, or proprietorship. Some circuses do not use trained animals, for example, such as the circuses of China and Africa, which feature acrobatic acts similar to those elsewhere, albeit with traditions rooted in religion and folklore. At various times circuses have offered supplementary attractions such as street parades, menageries, sideshows, pantomimes, and theatrical presentations. A number of circuses, especially in Europe, have been stationary, occupying permanent, often elegant buildings in larger cities. Others have traveled extensively—originally by horse and wagon and then by railroad, boat, motor vehicle, or even airplane—and exhibited in tents, theatres, and, beginning in the 1960s, huge enclosed sports arenas. Many circus companies, particularly in the United States, exhibit simultaneously in three or more rings, with the building or tent taking on a rectangular or elliptical shape; others retain the one-ring format. Some organizations, such as the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, can point to a history extending back a century or more; other circuses, such as those sponsored by fraternal organizations (e.g., the Shriners), may exist for less than a single season or for only one engagement. Through all the above, however, there runs a common thread: the ring, by which spectators readily recognize the entertainment known as “circus.”

Early history

Origins

      The circus is of comparatively recent origin, yet certain elements can be traced back to ancient Rome. The great Roman amphitheatres (amphitheatre)—called circuses after the Latin word for “circle”—were most often devoted to gladiatorial combats, chariot races, the slaughter of animals, mock battles, and other blood sports. The most spectacular of these arenas, the Circus Maximus, was in operation for more than 1,000 years. It would seem on the surface that these exhibitions of carnage had little in common with modern circuses, yet it is from the early Roman circuses that traditions such as trained animals and the preshow parade derive.

      Elsewhere, ancient peoples performed other acts associated with the modern circus. Acrobatics, balancing acts, and juggling are probably as old as humankind itself, with records of such acts being performed in Egypt as early as 2500 BC. The Greeks practiced ropedancing; early African civilizations engaged in siricasi (a combination of folkloric dances and acrobatics); and the ancient Chinese juggled and performed acrobatic acts for members of the imperial court. Clowns have existed in nearly every period and civilization, both as characters in farces and as individual performers.

      For centuries, however, there were no attempts to organize such acts into a distinct entertainment; rather, individuals and small troupes of performers with specialized talents wandered through Europe, Africa, and Asia. Such roving entertainers appeared wherever groups of people gathered: in nobles' halls, at community celebrations, and at marketplaces. In the 9th century King Alfred the Great (Alfred) of England was said to have been entertained by a wild beast show, and in the 11th century William the Conqueror (William I) brought performing troupes of ropedancers, tumblers, and contortionists to England from France.

      Fairs (fair) played an important role in developing trade throughout Europe from the 7th century until the late medieval period, at which point more-regular channels of marketing were standardized. Fairs then became a place less for trading than for entertainment, providing a showcase for acrobatics, feats of skill, trained animals, and other elements later associated with the circus. By the late 18th century, however, they were regarded as unsavory affairs, as they had become gathering places for pickpockets, thieves, and vagrants.

Philip Astley (Astley, Philip) and the first circuses

 The modern circus came into being in England (United Kingdom) in 1768 when Philip Astley (Astley, Philip), a former sergeant major turned trick rider, found that if he galloped in a circle while standing on his horse (horsemanship)'s back, centrifugal (centrifugal force) and centripetal (centripetal acceleration) forces helped him to keep his balance. It is perhaps because of this discovery that he is often credited with having invented the circus ring, but it was in fact a device that had been in use for some time by trick riders. He did, however, experiment with the ring in order to determine its optimum size for both rider safety and audience sight lines; his first ring was about 62 feet (19 metres) in diameter, and he eventually adopted the more-popular 42-foot (13-metre) standard that is still used in modern circuses. Astley's shows consisted only of trick riding exhibitions until 1770, when he hired a clown (“Mr. Merryman”), musicians, and other performers for his show in order to provide spectators with a diverse entertainment. Because of these innovations, he is credited with having developed the modern circus. He eventually built a roof over his ring and added a stage for dramatic performances.

      Astley discovered that similar developments were occurring in France when he traveled to that country in 1772 to present his “daring feats of horsemanship” before King Louis XV (Louis XV) at Fontainebleau. Ten years later Astley returned to Paris and opened an amphitheatre (one of 19 permanent circuses he built during his lifetime) at Rue de Faubourg du Temple, near the Boulevard du Crime, where the Place de la Republique stands today. He left Paris in 1793, following the outbreak of the French Revolution, whereupon his Parisian circus was taken over by the Italian Antonio Franconi (Franconi, Antonio), a member of a noble Venetian family who had been forced into exile after a fatal duel. Franconi became first a showman and later a trick rider, but it was as a director that he excelled. His sons, Laurent and Henri, together with their wives and children, continued in his footsteps, and the Franconi family is generally credited with the founding of the French circus. They are also credited with having standardized the diameter of the ring at 13 metres (approximately 42 feet). In 1802, with the arrival of Napoleon and his empire, Astley resumed control of his Paris circus. The Franconis moved to Rue du Mont-Thabor, where they built another circus.

      Concurrent with these developments, a rival horseman and former Astley employee named Charles Hughes traveled to Russia in 1773 to perform for Catherine the Great (Catherine II) in the royal palace of St. Petersburg. He took with him a small company of trick riders and taught horsemanship at the court. Hughes is therefore sometimes credited with having introduced the circus to Russia, but his exhibitions encompassed only trick riding. (The first Russian circus to incorporate a full complement of acts was that of the Frenchman Jacques Tourniaire, a first-rate equestrian who built a short-lived circus in St. Petersburg.) Hughes went on to introduce the term circus in 1782, when he opened what he called the Royal Circus a few hundred yards south of Astley's amphitheatre.

      From the time of its origin in England, the circus was often presented in a theatre setting, mostly in permanent or semipermanent buildings of flimsy construction. The greatest hazard to these theatres was fire, from which Astley suffered particularly: his amphitheatre burned down three times in the first 62 years of its history. At Astley's, the Royal Circus, and elsewhere, a proscenium arch and large scenic stage were set behind a ring, creating a sense of theatre. Within these settings riders on horseback acted out pantomimed stories based on famous battles and sieges. As advertised in an old Astley handbill, such acts sought to demonstrate the battle techniques of “a general engagement, sword in hand, with the different postures of offence, for the safety of man and horse.” In France this genre of horseback entertainment was eventually exiled to traditional theatres.

John Bill Ricketts and the American (United States) circus

      By the late 18th century the circus had spread throughout Europe and had gained a fragile foothold in the United States. In 1793 John Bill Ricketts, a Scottish rider and former student of Hughes, presented exhibitions in Philadelphia and New York City consisting of trick riding, rope walkers, tumblers, pantomimes, and a clown. Because Ricketts was the first in the United States to offer such variety for an evening's entertainment, he is credited with the country's introduction to the circus. The main feature of his show was his own equestrian act, in which he leaped from his galloping horse over a ribbon suspended 12 feet (3.7 metres) in the air and then landed back in the saddle. Animals would not become commonplace in American circuses for several years, but Ricketts's steed, Cornplanter, is regarded as the first star animal performer in the United States. Within a few years Ricketts would hire John Durang, who is believed to have been the first American-born circus clown.

      Despite the variety of acts presented by Ricketts and other early entrepreneurs, the main attraction of the circus was always the riding act. Such acts often required a “ringmaster” to keep the horses running properly as the rider performed tricks. In time the role of the ringmaster expanded into that of an emcee (and an occasional foil for clowns); today's ringmasters still wear traditional riding garb.

      In the tradition of Astley's and other European circuses, Ricketts's productions featured a pantomime—or, as it came to be known, the “spectacular,” or “spec” in circus jargon. As in Astley's circus, Ricketts's specs sometimes dramatized famous battles, but they also evolved to re-create historical incidents, ancient myths, and Bible stories. Sometimes they consisted of a grand pageant in which the entire circus company, dressed in glittering costumes, paraded through the arena (the form in which the spec has endured into modern times).

      Unfortunately, Ricketts's endeavour, like Astley's before him, fell victim to fire, the most notorious enemy of circuses. Shortly after losing his New York circus to fire, Ricketts returned to Philadelphia, where in 1799 yet another of his circuses burned to the ground. After a few unsuccessful attempts at rebuilding his career, the discouraged and near-bankrupt Ricketts set sail for England, hoping to reestablish himself in that country. The ship on which he sailed, however, perished at sea on an unknown date in 1800, claiming the lives of all aboard.

19th-century developments

History

      After Ricketts's death the popularity of the circus waned in the United States, although certain troupes had sporadic success during the early 19th century. The European circus of Pepin and Breschard, for instance, was well received at the turn of the century. It was also about this time that the popularity of exotic animals was noted by exhibitors, with the arrival of the first elephant on the North American continent in 1796. The animal, owned at first by Captain Jacob Crowninshield (and recorded in history only as “Crowninshield's elephant”), became the first elephant to be exhibited with a circus when it joined the Cayetano, Codet, Menial & Redon Circus of New York in 1812.

      The second elephant on American shores, Old Bet, was even more popular and is credited with having established the circus tradition of the animal menagerie. Old Bet was owned by Hackaliah Bailey of Somers, New York. Between 1809 and 1816 Bailey toured with the elephant, walking with the animal from town to town under the cover of night in order to prevent anyone from having a free look at the beast. Old Bet's popularity inspired Bailey's farmer-neighbours to set out with menageries of their own. In a very short time there were noteworthy traveling collections of wild animals, such as the Zoological Institute of the June brothers. June, Titus & Angevine and Van Amburgh's Menagerie also set up permanent establishments in the larger cities. Similar exhibitions developed in England (United Kingdom), which led to such famous traveling menageries as Bostock & Wombwell's. Some menageries were as large as full traveling zoos, although most of them could be contained within two or three wagons.

      Other important innovations during this time included the introduction of the circus tent, or “big top,” which was first used about 1825 on the itinerating show of the American J. Purdy Brown. His reasons for exhibiting shows under canvas tents (which were at first very small, housing one ring and a few hundred seats) are unknown, but it was an innovation that became a standard component of circuses for more than a century and a half. It allowed Brown to become the first operator to travel widely with his circus, which he did throughout Virginia in 1826 and along the banks of the Mississippi River in 1828. His show featured minstrel (minstrel show) numbers as well as acts common to other circuses of the time. It would eventually offer an animal menagerie, the first (in 1832) to be incorporated into a circus setting.

      The American circus lost its most important promoter when Brown died suddenly following a performance in 1834. It would be nearly four decades before entrepreneurs as influential as Ricketts or Brown would reemerge and expand the circus to newfound heights of popularity. Until that time, circuses maintained a fair level of success with traveling shows such as the Mount Pitt Circus, as well as those featuring the animal tamer Isaac Van Amburgh and the famous American clown Dan Rice (Rice, Dan).

      The United States gradually became the world leader in circus innovations, however, eclipsing European circuses in terms of scale and extravagance by adding rings to the performance space and exhibiting shows under larger and larger tents, or “tops.” The American circus truly came to the forefront of international developments through the efforts of Phineas T. Barnum (Barnum, P.T.), who was already a household name by the time he promoted his first circus at age 61. Barnum began his career as a showman (and charlatan) in 1834 by promoting Joice Heth, an African American woman in her 80s, as the 161-year-old former nurse to George Washington (Washington, George). His next major enterprise was the acquisition of New York's American Museum, which he turned into a showcase for the sensational and the bizarre. More than 82 million visitors—including such notables as Henry James (James, Henry), Charles Dickens (Dickens, Charles), and the prince of Wales—visited the museum to examine its human and animal curiosities, some genuine (such as Chang and Eng, the “original” Siamese twins), some bogus (such as the “Feejee Mermaid,” a creature fabricated by attaching the body of a fish to the head of a monkey). Barnum closed the museum in 1868 after losing it twice to fire and then spent a few years promoting individual attractions (such as Swedish singer Jenny Lind (Lind, Jenny)) before becoming partners with W.C. Coup (Coup, W C) in 1871. With Coup, Barnum produced a spectacular circus in Brooklyn, New York, that was billed as the “Greatest Show on Earth.” It offered several attractions borrowed from Barnum's museum, from which evolved the sideshow, a feature unique to American circuses.

      Before 1872 most itinerating circuses moved from town to town by horse and wagon, a form of transport that necessarily limited their size and the distances they could cover in a given season. In the spring of that year, Barnum and his partners loaded their show onto 65 railroad cars and thereby gave birth to the age of the giant railroad circuses. Circuses could then move greater distances and perform in towns that had the space and the population to support the large shows. Barnum's own “Greatest Show on Earth” eventually traveled on three separate trains, going distances of 100 miles (160 km) or more in a single night. Later in the century, Coup would introduce the end loading of circus trains, in which the gaps between flatcars were bridged by iron plates and each wagon, fully loaded, was pushed down the plates of the train to its assigned place. American circuses thus became models of logistic efficiency, their methods leading to the creation of the modern system of rail-truck freight handling.

 In the 1880s Barnum began to produce shows in partnership with James A. Bailey (Bailey, James A). These productions would define circuses in the United States for more than a century. Bailey was best known as the promoter of the Great International Circus, which staged successful tours of the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand in the 1870s. Regarded as the best circus organizer in the business, he was a perfect partner for Barnum, who was himself known as the best showman in the business. Their circus offered the types of acts that had been established throughout the 19th century, but they had so many acts and operated on such a large scale that the show required the use of two (1873) and then three (1881) rings. Perhaps the most famous attraction of the early Barnum & Bailey circus was the legendary Jumbo, the largest elephant in the world, which Barnum acquired in 1882.

      Barnum & Bailey's main competitors during the late 19th century were the Ringling Brothers, who established their first circus in 1884. During this period and into the early 20th century, the Ringlings expanded their organization by acquiring several smaller circuses.

      Continental European and British circuses generally retained the one-ring format in the mid- to late 19th century; their programs were often of the highest calibre, and their tents may have seated as many as 5,000 spectators. In order to maintain the one-ring design while expanding the area beneath the tent, the European tent was designed with the four centre poles forming a square instead of a single-file line as with American big tops. European circuses were also often performed in permanent buildings—at the Circus Schumann in Copenhagen, for example, and at the venerable Cirque d'Hiver in Paris, which dates from 1852. In Russia and certain other areas of the former Soviet Union (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics), the circus was regarded as an art form and received lavish state support and beautiful permanent spaces. To this day nearly every city of any size in the former Soviet states boasts a permanent circus building. Throughout Europe rail transport for circuses was never very popular, and, although a few attempts at traveling by rail were made, it was not until the second quarter of the 20th century that rail travel came into regular use by any European show. In Latin America and East Asia it was used, when available, after 1900.

      In the United States and to some extent in Europe, circuses annually retired to winter quarters to rest and refurbish for another season. Among the cities that became identified as winter-quarters towns were Peru, Indiana, which sheltered Hagenbeck-Wallace and other shows; Baraboo, Wisconsin, the winter home for the Ringling Bros. Circus and the Ringlings' cousins the Gollmar Brothers; Delavan, Wisconsin, home to more than a dozen circuses; and Bridgeport, Connecticut, which for nearly 50 years served as headquarters for Barnum's “Greatest Show on Earth,” until the Ringlings moved the operations of the combined show to Sarasota, Florida, in 1927.

General characteristics

      Many characteristics of the modern circus—such as parades, acts of skill, animals, and clowns—had become mainstays of many circuses by the mid-19th century.

The parade

 The circus parade through the streets, serving as a triumphal entry into town by each overland circus caravan, developed during the mid-19th century. The tradition evolved in the United States, although it was the English who popularized it and created the most spectacular processions and the most ornately carved circus parade wagons. English parades, which wound their way through the town back to the circus field (“lot” in the United States, “tober” in Britain), were a great feature of tented circuses, particularly that of “Lord” George Sanger (Sanger, John), who once tacked his parade onto the end of a military escort accompanying Queen Victoria across London. Interest in circus parades increased in the United States when Englishman Seth Howes imported several English wagons in 1864. The American circus parade, which subsequently became a national institution, became the climax of a highly systematized publicity campaign to arouse interest in the circus during its brief appearance at any one place.

Equestrian acts

 Continuing traditions from the days of Astley, scenic riding remained extremely popular in the 19th century, before the purely acrobatic (acrobatics) style supplanted it. In scenic riding the equestrian, appropriately costumed, acted out a pantomime on horseback (horsemanship). The greatest exponent of this artistic mode of riding was the Englishman Andrew Ducrow (Ducrow, Andrew), who was Astley's manager during the last two decades of his life. One of his acts, “The Courier of St. Petersburg,” is still seen in the circus. In this act a rider straddles two cantering horses while other horses, bearing the flags of those countries that a courier would traverse on a journey from St. Petersburg to England, pass between his legs. Besides other solo acts, which were copied by equestrians throughout the world, Ducrow invented several duets and ensemble numbers. In “The Tyrolean Shepherd and Swiss Milkmaid,” for example, he was joined by his wife, Louisa Woolford; while standing on the backs of their circling horses, the two performed the pursuit and wooing of a “fair peasant,” complete with a lovers' quarrel and reconciliation scene, followed by an exquisite pas de deux.

      In England, Shakespeare's Richard III and Macbeth and even Richard Verdi's opera Il trovatore were performed on horseback at Astley's during the 19th century. Astley's never became as fashionable as several circuses based in permanent buildings on the Continent, however. The most exclusive clubs in Paris kept their own private boxes at the Cirque d'Été; and in Paris, St. Petersburg, and Berlin the stables were regularly scented for the benefit of aristocratic visitors.

      The 19th century saw other great riders who were champions of bareback riding—the art of performing acrobatic and gymnastic feats on the bare backs of loping horses. James Robinson, a mid-19th-century American, was one such rider. He was billed as “the One Great and Only Hero and Bareback Horseman and Gold Champion-Belted Emperor of All Equestrians.”

      A variety of other equestrian tricks gained popularity in the 19th century. A traditional finale of the larger tent shows, known as the Great Roman Hippodrome Races, was a spectacle composed of novelty races, steeplechases, and the ancient arts of chariot racing and Roman post (standing) riding. Also popular were “horses at liberty,” horses that performed free of rider, reins, or harness, directed solely by visual or oral command. In 1897 the Barnum & Bailey Circus presented the largest troupe of these horses, with 70 performing simultaneously in one ring.

Acts of skill

      Acts of human skill experienced a resurgence in the 19th century as a part of the circus. The flying trapeze was invented by the French acrobat Jules Léotard in 1859. That same year another Frenchman, Jean-François Gravelet (stage name “ Blondin”), crossed Niagara Falls on a tightrope. These events excited public interest in the work of the aerial gymnast and acrobat. By the turn of the 20th century, acrobatic acts had grown in popularity, although they never usurped the supreme position of the horse in the circus.

Circus families

      Notable circus families became prominent during the 19th century. From one generation to another, members of a family would be trained from earliest childhood in the skills and discipline necessary to achieve perfection either in one specialty or in a group of related specialties. For example, the Cristiani family of Italy—known as the “Royal Family of the Circus,” with a history dating back to the mid-19th century—were perhaps the most famous equestrians in circus history, but some members excelled in the common circus skills of tumbling, ballet, and acrobatics. Circus families often intermarried. The Cooke family, which traveled from Scotland to New York City in the early 1800s, was an equestrian group that intermarried with the Coles and the Ortons, both well-known American circus families. As a family expanded, branches were established in numerous areas, and members often went from one branch to another. The Cristianis, for instance, established branches throughout Europe and in the United States; they, like many other circus families, gained their largest measure of fame outside their native country. Another example of this is the Cinisellis, an Italian family that dominated the Russian circus during the late 19th century.

Clowns (clown)

      As the circus developed in the 19th century, the clown came to play a definite role in it. In 19th-century one-ring circuses, clowns often entertained audiences with songs and long monologues, in which they sometimes offered words of wisdom on politics and current events or quoted Shakespeare; one such clown was the popular American Dan Rice (Rice, Dan), who was known for an act that incorporated singing, dancing, jokes, and trick riding. Several other varieties of clowns were popular in the 19th century, particularly the elegantly costumed whiteface clown, favoured in many European circuses, who appears rather severe and domineering, and the happy-go-lucky Auguste (German: “foolish”) clown, conceived by the American Tom Belling in the late 19th century, whose makeup, costume, and behaviour are exaggerated and grotesque.

Wild animal acts

      The introduction of wild animals to the circus dates from about 1831, when the French trainer Henri Martin, performing in Germany, presumably entered a cage with a tiger. He was soon followed by the American trainer Isaac A. Van Amburgh, reputedly the first man to stick his head into a lion's mouth, who in 1838 took his act to England and so fascinated the young Queen Victoria that she commissioned the artist Sir Edwin Landseer to paint a portrait of the brawny American with his “big cats.” In addition to exhibiting at circuses, both Martin and Van Amburgh frequently trod the boards of regular theatres, where they and their animals were featured in melodramas with such titles as Hyder Ali (also known as The Lions of Mysore) and The Brute Tamer of Pompeii. Other dramas performed in theatres and circuses about this time featured elephants, bears, monkeys, and horses in starring roles.

      In the United States, elephants have long been considered by many to be the very hallmark of the circus. As Barnum once said, “Elephants and clowns are pegs on which to hang a circus.” Beginning with the single specimens exhibited at Astley's in the early 19th century, the number of performing elephants, especially in American three-ring circuses, would run as high as 40 or more by the turn of the 20th century.

 Countless other species of wild animals were trained to perform in the circus ring during this period, including polar bears, giraffes, hippopotamuses, and rhinoceroses. In the mid-19th century the members of the Knie family of Switzerland and the Togni family in Italy were celebrated for their expertise in the handling of such exotic animals.

The menagerie

      By the time American circuses achieved their massive character in the 1870s, the menagerie was a major feature, and it remained so through the 1940s. Circus menageries in the United States were exhibited in separate tents, and audiences passed through them before going into the main performance in the “big top.” The beautifully carved wagons that held the animals lined the perimeter of the tent or were clustered in the centre of the tent. The elephants formed a line around one end of the tent, followed by other uncaged animals such as camels, llamas, bison, and zebras. Many of the larger circuses had extensive collections that included exotic animals such as rhinoceroses and giraffes, in their own portable corrals. (A number of European organizations, such as the Knie, Krone, and Orfei circuses, would still maintain animal menageries of this kind at the turn of the 21st century.)

Sideshows

      Sideshows became a part of the circus in the United States in the late 19th century, although they did not gain much popularity elsewhere. Barnum (Barnum, P.T.) was perhaps the major influence in sideshow development, having demonstrated their popularity as an attraction at his American Museum. Typically, these shows included human “abnormalities,” such as “fat ladies,” giants and dwarfs, “armless wonders,” and “four-legged girls”; illusions and magicians; automatons and curious inventions; and various works of art, among them Hiram Powers (Powers, Hiram)'s titillating nude statue The Greek Slave (c. 1847). Housed in its own tent, the sideshow typically was fronted by giant banners or panels illustrating the marvels inside. A unique and vital element of the sideshow was the “talker,” who lured customers by “ballyhooing” the sights to be found inside. Talkers—often associated with the phrase “Step right up!”—were called “grinders” or “spielers.” As the 20th century progressed, attitudes changed toward the political correctness of such exhibitions and this caused the decline of the sideshow.

Wild West shows (Wild West show)

 Circuses in the United States were sometimes attached to “Wild West shows,” which emphasized displays and events of the Old West. A Wild West show usually presented its exhibition in a large open field surrounded by bleachers that were protected by a canvas canopy. Typically, such shows featured Native American ceremonies; cowboys who engaged in bronco busting, roughriding, roping, and sharpshooting; and dramatic representations of life on the frontier. Although Barnum had added such an exhibition to his circus as early as 1876, the credit for establishing the Wild West show as a separate entertainment goes to the former cavalry scout William F. (“Buffalo Bill”) Cody (Cody, William F.) and his partner W.F. (“Doc”) Carver, who launched their own Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World in 1883. Pawnee Bill's Wild West and Miller Bros.'s 101 Ranch Real Wild West were prominent competitors of Buffalo Bill throughout the years. The famous riflewoman Annie Oakley (Oakley, Annie), “Little Sure Shot,” gained her fame as a star of Wild West shows. Many film stars were also associated with them, including Tom Mix (Mix, Tom) and Will Rogers (Rogers, Will). The last Wild West show was Colonel Tim McCoy's Wild West of 1938.

20th-century developments

History

      In 1907, following the death of Bailey, Barnum's final partner, the Ringling brothers bought Barnum & Bailey Circus and continued to run it as a separate show. In 1919 they finally combined it with their own circus to form the concern that still flourished at the turn of the 21st century as the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus. In 1929 John Ringling, the remaining brother, bought the American Circus Corporation of Peru, Indiana, a syndicate comprising five of the largest circuses in the United States. With this purchase Ringling owned almost all the major American circuses, thus ensuring his supremacy in the field. Such attempts at monopolies were never the case in Europe, however, where most circuses stayed in the hands of circus families that tended to split up rather than combine them; as a result, more than one circus often bore the name Pinder, Fossett, Ginnett, or Sanger.

      The period between the world wars was marked by economic depression and political turmoil throughout the world, which caused several circuses to struggle for their existence. In addition, foreign travel for European circuses was inhibited by passport formalities, customs duties, quarantine restrictions, and currency regulations. For large companies with much equipment, the difficulties were particularly acute, as in the case of one German circus, the Sarrasani, which toured South America in 1923 and 1934 in order to evade inflation and political persecution at home. The circus in Britain also declined during the 1920s, although the circuses produced by Bertram Mills (Mills, Bertram), a wealthy undertaker who had invented the glass hearse, were a spectacular exception to the rule. Mills first introduced international circus stars to the British public at Kensington's Olympia in London in 1920, and he continued to produce highly successful shows at that venue for 17 years.

      Meanwhile, in the United States the era of train travel and the grand horse-drawn circus parade was slowly fading. The gradual demise of both institutions was precipitated by the truck show, or motorized circus, which began with the short-lived Great United States Motorized Circus in 1919. During the 1920s motor transport also proved successful for such companies as the Downie Bros. Circus and the Seils-Sterling Circus. At first there was a tendency within the profession to belittle the truck shows, but most accepted the economic necessity of such transportation by the 1930s. In that decade several outstanding shows moved by truck, including the Wild West show of Mix, which traveled coast to coast. The last horse-drawn circus parade was that of the Cole Bros. Circus in 1939, and only the Ringling Brothers organization continued to travel by train at midcentury.

      During the 1930s and '40s the Ringling empire experienced great financial difficulties. Many circus performers lost their jobs during the Great Depression of the 1930s, which prompted the federal government to organize the Works Progress Administration Circus—the only example of a state-run circus ever seen in the United States. As the circus was slowly returning to solvency, a disastrous fire in 1944 destroyed the Ringling big top during a performance in Hartford, Connecticut. The fire, which took 168 lives and left hundreds of other spectators burned and injured, added to the woes of American circus proprietors. The courts subsequently decided that the only way for the circus to repay its losses and settle its lawsuits was to remain open, and this became the first instance of a Chapter Eleven bankruptcy in the United States.

      By the 1950s, faced with stiff competition from motion pictures and especially television, circuses in the United States were generally declining. In 1956 John Ringling North, cousin of the original Ringling brothers, cited economic and labour problems in announcing that the “Greatest Show on Earth” would abandon its big top and in the future perform only in permanent exhibition halls and sports arenas. Indeed, economic necessity forced American circuses to model themselves after their European counterparts, in that the tented circus eventually gave way to shows performed in huge indoor arenas. For many this announcement signaled the imminent demise of the circus. A year later, however, promoter Irvin Feld (whose family would purchase the Ringling organization in 1967) organized the first large-arena tour for the circus. Its success ensured the future of American circuses for decades to come.

 The circus flourished in the 1950s, '60s, and '70s in the United States, despite anxiety over its future and the disappearance or reorganization of such stalwarts as the Bertram Mills and Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey circuses during the 1950s and '60s. In 1969 the Ringling organization fielded two complete circuses, the “red” and “blue” units, which performed for 11 months each year and between them visited nearly every major American city, with occasional performances in Canada and Mexico. Beginning in the mid-1980s and continuing into the 21st century, more than 30 major circuses toured the United States and Canada, while dozens more—some lasting an entire season, some for only a few weeks or for single engagements sponsored by local groups such as the Shriners—also performed.

      In the late 20th century artists and circus companies from East Asian countries and the former Soviet republics rose to prominence. Among the distinguishing characteristics of their acts were the originality of the apparatus, costumes, and presentation. While China has a long history of circus acts such as acrobatics, the circuses of China truly began to thrive after receiving government funding beginning in 1949. By 2000 there were more than 250 circus troupes in China, many of which performed throughout the world. Similarly, the circus had been one of the main forms of entertainment for Russians since the late 19th century, and it increased in popularity following the revolution of 1917, as it was seen by Soviet leaders as a form of entertainment that could be enjoyed by all classes. Before the fall of the Soviet Union in 1990, Russian circuses were at their peak, with more than 70 permanent circus buildings and some 50 traveling companies in operation. Since that time notable companies such as the Bolshoi Moscow Circus and the Moscow Russian Circus have continued to thrive.

      In addition to such cultures with established histories of the circus, others began to develop national circus traditions as the turn of the 21st century approached. Particularly notable were the circuses of Africa, India, Spain, Brazil, and Mexico, many of which were characterized by acrobatic and athletic exhibitions with traditions rooted in religion and folklore.

      Many international circuses began to experiment with different formats. Some European circuses, such as Italy's Circo Americano, attempted to emulate the American pattern by exhibiting simultaneously in three rings. At the same time, there was increasing interest among American producers in adopting, or reverting to, the more-intimate, less-confusing one-ring format. The Big Apple Circus of New York, the Circus Flora of St. Louis, Missouri, the UniverSoul Circus of Atlanta, Georgia, and the Cirque du Soleil from Quebec all employed the single-ring format and performed in tents that seated about 1,600 to 2,000 spectators.

 Perhaps the most innovative trend in circuses at the turn of the 21st century was the establishment of companies such as the Cirque du Soleil. Such companies employ no animals in their performances and instead emphasize traditional acts of human skill and daring; in addition, contemporary music and dance are integrated into the production. Performances are often given on traditional proscenium stages rather than in circus rings. Other companies in this new tradition include Cirque de Paris and Seattle, Washington's Cirque de Flambé (known for productions with a heavy emphasis on fire).

General characteristics

      In the 20th century the circus retained many of its essential components while also expanding the scope and extravagance of its displays. By the late 20th century the circus had become an increasingly global entertainment.

The parade

      By the early 20th century the methods for organizing the circus parade had become standardized. Larger shows sent an “advance car,” which, as its name implies, provided advance publicity for a circus by arriving in town two or three weeks before show day. Bill posters, lithographers, and banner men plastered the town and its environs with tens of thousands of square feet of such “paper.” On circus day the train arrived with its stockcars, perhaps with elephant trunks probing outside openings, and a long line of flatcars loaded with red baggage wagons, pole wagons, bandwagons, tableaux, chariots, the steam boiler wagon, and canvas-covered wild-animal cages. In a large circus, such as the Ringling-Barnum show, there could be several trains.

      The show grounds became a scene of highly organized chaos: acres of canvas and a forest of poles were assembled in front of swarms of curious spectators. “Parade call” was then trumpeted, and performers, musicians, animal attendants, wardrobe crews, drivers, and brakemen assembled for the grand free street parade that was usually scheduled for 11:00 AM. Following the bugle brigade heralding the grand event, there was a long procession of horses, flag bearers, bands on magnificent wagons, allegorical tableaux, clowns, knights in armour, beautiful ladies on steeds, Roman chariots, chimes, bells, a band organ, cage after cage of wild animals (some open to view and others closed to prompt curiosity), cowboys, “Indians,” and a long line of highly caparisoned elephants shuffling along trunk-to-tail. The traditional finale to the circus parade was the Pied Piper of the circus, the steam calliope. After two shows daily and the teardown, which took place at night, the wagons and teams followed flares to the train, where they rolled back onto the flatcars to disappear into the night and begin the process again the next day in another town.

Equestrian acts

 Twentieth-century equestrian acts can be divided into three main groups: voltige, in which a rider vaults onto and off a horse's back; trick riding, in which the standing rider performs somersaults and pirouettes or forms human pyramids with other riders on one or more horses; and high school, a spectacular form of dressage in which a horse executes complex maneuvers in response to imperceptible commands communicated through slight shiftings in the rider's weight, pressure exerted by the knees and legs, or the handling of the reins. The Danish Schumann family, for many years directors of the permanent circus in Copenhagen, excelled in high school and also exhibited many fine liberty-horse acts. The Schumanns built their first circus in 1914 and were still among the most renowned international circus families in the early 21st century.

Acts of skill

 In the 20th century the Wallendas (Wallenda, Karl), a family of high-wire artists originally from Germany who debuted with the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey show in 1928, helped set the standard for acts of skill. The Wallenda family was renowned for balancing three-high on bicycles on the high wire and, later, for their seven-person pyramid. Other inspiring performers included the petite Lillian Leitzel, born in Bohemia of a German circus family, who could pivot 100 times on her shoulder socket, spinning from a rope like a pinwheel in a maneuver called the “plange” (a stunt that led to her tragic death at the peak of her career in 1931, when her apparatus broke); the Australian-born Con Colleano, the “Toreador of the Tight Wire,” whose dance on the wire to a Spanish cadence thrilled American audiences from 1925 until his retirement in 1959; Antoinette Concello, who became the first woman to perform the triple somersault on the trapeze in 1937; and Dolly Jacobs, who began her career in 1976, performing on the Roman rings for the Ringling brothers and Big Apple circuses, and who was the daughter of famous Auguste clown Lou Jacobs.

      Circus acts have always crossed national borders and, traditionally, certain nationalities tend to dominate specific areas of circus performance. Eastern Europeans became known for acrobatics and tumbling over the course of the 20th century. In the groundbreaking high-wire act of the Russian (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) Voljansky troupe, the wire changed from being horizontal to being at an oblique angle, while the tension was maintained. Another unique act, the Koch sisters, performed on a giant semaphore arm that revolved slowly as they balanced on the outside edge. In the late 20th century one of the most renowned Russian trapeze acts, “The Flying Cranes,” used dramatic devices to tell the story of fallen Soviet war heroes whose souls are transformed into cranes. The acrobats fly through the air in white costumes, highlighted by dramatic theatrical lighting and smoke and accompanied by well-known Russian music.

      Chinese acrobats also became especially renowned for unique acts emphasizing balance and coordination, such as the “Peacock Bicycle,” which featured a human pyramid of 17 people atop a single bicycle.

      Mexican acrobats became known for their skill at the flying trapeze. Trapeze artist Tito Gaona first performed in 1964 at age 15 and—even blindfolded—flawlessly performed the triple somersault from bar to catcher. In 1982 Miguel Vasquez became the first person to do a quadruple somersault from bar to catcher in a public performance.

Circus families

      Such national traditions may be related to the existence of circus families, whose specialties are passed on for several generations. In the 20th century circus families, such as the Wallendas, were still prominent, and they were often responsible for spreading the circus to new parts of the world. For instance, in the early part of the century, the British circus family of Harmston settled in East Asia, and for years their only rival was the Russian circus. The Boswells left England for South Africa, where they met competition from the German circus, Pagel. Frank Brown, whose father had been a clown at Astley's, toured South America for many seasons. In Australia the circus prospered under the Wirth family. The Lobes, from Budapest, made Persia their tenting ground, and the Sidolis settled in Romania.

Clowns (clown)

  In the 20th century a number of clowns attempted to strike out in new directions, abandoning traditional costumes and makeup and developing more-natural characters. In the United States Emmett Kelly and Otto Griebling, both at their peaks in the 1930s and '40s, popularized the woebegone down-and-out “tramp” character who provided poignant and comic insight into the small tragedies of life. In the second half of the century the great Russian clown Oleg Popov (Popov, Oleg Konstantinovich) became well-known not only in the Soviet Union but also in Europe and the United States through his tours with the Moscow Circus. Wearing a minimum of makeup in the tradition of European Auguste clowns, he appeared in the ring with little to set him apart from the others except a slightly unconventional wardrobe. Like other great comedians of the world, his mere appearance brought anticipatory laughter from the audience. Popov impersonated a Moscovite streetwise character who is forever trying to mimic the legitimate performers. Frequently he almost succeeded, but only after sufficient bungling to make his performance a comedy. Popov was also noted for his exceptional juggling and slack-wire skills.

      Modern, or “New Vaudeville,” clowns do not use the traditional clown accoutrements. They usually work alone, typically without makeup, and establish a personal relationship with the audience. Two Americans, Bill Irwin and David Shiner, are perhaps the best-known among New Vaudeville clowns; their talents were featured in the Broadway production Fool Moon (1994). Also among the most renowned of modern clowns is David Larible, who descends from seven generations of Italian circus performers. During the late 20th century Larible became the first clown ever to headline the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, as well as its “sister” circus, Barnum's Kaleidoscape. His pantomimed act featured strong interaction with the audience, even bringing audience members into the ring to become an important part of the show.

Wild animal acts

 Until the late 20th century there was a marked difference between European and American styles of presenting wild animal acts. In the 19th century Van Amburgh, believing that the trainer must demonstrate physical superiority over his “pupils,” had customarily beat his animals into submission. Unfortunately, this practice was followed by many of his American successors. Clyde Beatty (Beatty, Clyde), an American cat trainer popular from his debut in the 1920s until his death in 1965, used a rough, fighting style in the cage; his act was punctuated with the cracks of his whip and shots fired from his blank gun. He subjugated as many as 40 “black-maned African lions and Royal Bengal tigers” at one time.

 The European style of presenting wild cat acts was developed by the Hagenbecks (Hagenbeck, Carl) in Germany near the end of the 19th century and was soon followed by most trainers in Europe. This style of training uses the natural abilities of the animals and presents them as obedient, even playful pets in harmony with their trainer, rather than in opposition. The wild character of the animals, however, is revealed just often enough to remind the spectator that what was seen was indeed the result of skillful training.

      Beginning in the late 20th century, in both Britain and the United States, circus owners were often challenged by activists who believed that cruelty was involved in the training of circus animals and who consequently agitated to have such acts banned. Many circuses responded to such charges by pointing out that the days of training animals through punishment (à la Beatty) were long gone; instead, the humane techniques of such trainers as Gunther Gebel-Williams, a German trainer who became famous with the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, had become the norm.

Circus music

      Most circus performances maintain a seemingly perpetual flow of music, signaling the changes of emphasis among simultaneous presentations as one event after another is highlighted. For most of the 20th century, major circuses such as Ringling Brothers made great use of the music of the “march king,” John Philip Sousa (Sousa, John Philip). Sousa's music proved highly popular in circuses because its brassy sound and stirring beat added to the sense of spectacle and grandeur. American circuses also incorporated such popular forms of music as the foxtrot, the tango, and the gallop, whereas European circus bands made heavy use of violins, a traditional instrument in the many cultures of that continent. Although one does not tend to think of musicians as star circus performers, Merle Evans, the “Music Maestro of the Big Top,” is fondly remembered for his skilled conducting of the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus band for more than 50 years until his retirement in 1970.

      Circus music changed drastically during the late 20th century. The march was no longer king, having been supplanted by more-modern forms, including rock music, while the number of live musicians diminished as many circuses made wide use of the synthesizer and other electronic instruments.

Preserving the art form

      As the circus evolved over the course of the 20th century, many worked to teach and preserve the fundamentals of the art form.

Circus schools

      During the 20th century several schools around the world were established to train students in the art of circus skills. In Russia a professional school for the training of circus artists has been associated with the Moscow Circus since 1929. After four years of rigorous course work, graduates are assigned to the nearly 100 circuses that perform throughout the country. In 1985 the French Ministry of Culture and Communication opened a four-year professional school for circus artists, the École Supérieure des Arts du Cirque, at Châlons-sur-Marne. The National Circus School of Montreal is the only private school in North America to offer training in a wide range of circus arts, although there are a number of schools and universities in the United States that provide instruction in specific aspects of the circus. One of the best-known of these was the Ringling organization's “Clown College,” located in Venice, Florida, which was established in 1968 and closed in 1997. Other American institutions that feature the circus include Florida State University's Flying High Circus (begun in 1947) at Tallahassee, whose performers are drawn exclusively from the student body; Circus Smirkus in Greensboro, Vermont, which enrolls children from around the world to collaborate with professional circus coaches; the Gamma Phi Circus at Illinois State University at Normal, which was established in 1929 and is the oldest college circus program in the country; and the University of Virginia (Virginia, University of) at Charlottesville, which offers the only college-accredited course on the history of the circus.

Associations and museums

      The presence of these schools reflects a growing interest in preserving the colourful past of the circus. Pursuing this goal are collectors and historians throughout the world, as well as associations, including the Circus Fans Association (England and the United States), the Club du Cirque (France), the Society of Friends of the Circus (Germany and Austria), the Circus Historical Society, the Circus Model Builders Association, the Windjammers, the Ringling Museum of the Circus, and the International Clown Hall of Fame (all United States). At Baraboo, Wisconsin, the extensive Circus World Museum, including a Circus Library and Research Center, is operated by the State Historical Society. Each July a train of authentic circus railroad cars transports more than 80 restored circus parade wagons from Baraboo to Milwaukee, where they are joined by hundreds of privately owned baggage horses for a parade through the streets of the city. At Bridgeport, Connecticut, the Barnum Museum features exhibits related to the circus and the life of Barnum. Most major European collections of circus materials remain in private hands, although there are important holdings available to researchers at such institutions as the British Library in London, the library and museum of the Paris Opéra, and the Museum of Circus Art attached to the circus in St. Petersburg.

      At the heart of such preservation efforts is a love of the circus. One might term the circus the most democratic of entertainments, because, no matter what the spectator's age or level of sophistication, there is always something interesting and amusing. For these and other reasons, the circus remains preeminently a “live” entertainment, whose pleasures and nuances can never be fully captured on film or television. It is a timeless institution that continues to endure, thrilling people of all nations.

Robert Lewis Parkinson Antony Dacres Hippisley Coxe A.H. Saxon LaVahn Gerry Hoh

Additional Reading

Comprehensive works include Monica J. Renevey (ed.), Le Grand Livre du cirque, 2 vol. (1977); and Henry Thétard, La Merveilleuse Histoire du cirque, new ed., rev. and enlarged by L.R. Dauven (1978). Circus history is examined from a cultural perspective in Bluford Adams, E Pluribus Barnum: The Great Showman and the Making of U.S. Popular Culture (1997); Joy S. Kasson, Buffalo Bill's Wild West: Celebrity, Memory, and Popular History (2000); Helen Stoddart, Rings of Desire: Circus History and Representation (2000); and James W. Cook, The Arts of Deception: Playing with Fraud in the Age of Barnum (2001). Studies of the circus in the United States are given in Stuart Thayer, Annals of the American Circus, 2 vol. (1976–86); LaVahn G. Hoh and William H. Rough, Step Right Up!: The Adventure of Circus in America (1990); and Tom Ogden, Two Hundred Years of the American Circus: From Aba-Daba to the Zoppe-Zavatta Troupe (1993). The circus in other countries is discussed in A.H. Saxon, The Life and Art of Andrew Ducrow & the Romantic Age of the English Circus (1978); and David Lewis Hammarstrom, Circus Rings Around Russia (1983).Individual acts and attractions are described in A.H. Saxon, Enter Foot and Horse: A History of Hippodrama in England and France (1968); Antony Hippisley Coxe, A Seat in the Circus, rev. ed. (1980); David Carlyon, Dan Rice: The Most Famous Man You've Never Heard Of (2001); and Donnalee Frega, Women of Illusion: A Circus Family's Story (2001). The activities of famous impresarios are presented in George Sanger, Seventy Years a Showman (1908, reissued 1966); George Sanger Coleman and John Lukens, The Sanger Story: Being George Sanger Coleman's Story of His Life with His Grandfather “Lord” George Sanger (1956; also published as The Sanger Story: The Story of His Life with His Grandfather “Lord” George Sanger, 1974); Cyril Bertram Mills, Bertram Mills Circus: Its Story (1967, reissued 1984); David Lewis Hammarstrom, Big Top Boss: John Ringling North and the Circus (1992); and Phineas T. Barnum, The Life of P.T. Barnum, Written by Himself (1855; also published as The Life of P.T. Barnum, 2000). The 2000 edition of Barnum's famous autobiography is faithful to the original unrevised text.Among the better books devoted to specific aspects and events in circus history are Ricky Jay, Learned Pigs and Fireproof Women (1986, reissued 1998), a classic study of sideshows and their attractions; Stewart O'Nan, The Circus Fire: A True Story (2000), which investigates the most devastating event in circus history, the Hartford, Connecticut, fire of 1944; and Ernest Albrecht, The New American Circus (1995), which explores contemporary circuses such as the Cirque du Soleil.Further research on the subject can be found in Raymond Toole-Stott, Circus and Allied Arts: A World Bibliography, 1500–[1970] Based Mainly on Circus Literature in the British Museum, the Library of Congress, the Bibliothèque Nationale, and on His Own Collection, 4 vol. (1958–71).A.H. Saxon Ed.

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