Children's Crusade

a crusade to recover Jerusalem from the Saracens, undertaken in 1212 by thousands of French and German children who perished, were sold into slavery, or were turned back.

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(1212) Religious movement in Europe in which thousands, including many children and young people, set out to take the Holy Land from the Muslims by love instead of by force.

The events of the Crusade are disputed. According to one version, only partially accurate, the first group of approximately 30,000 was led by a French shepherd boy, Stephen of Cloyes, who had a vision of Jesus and received a letter from him. Stephen led the Crusade to Paris and delivered the letter to King Philip II Augustus, who dispersed the Crusaders. A German boy led the second group across the Alps; a few survived to reach Rome, where Innocent III released them from their vows. Contemporary accounts describing horrible fates of the participants should be treated cautiously because they were written by those hostile to the movement. Though the movement ended without reaching the Holy Land, it excited religious fervour that helped initiate the Fifth Crusade (1217–21).

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▪ European history

Introduction

 popular religious movement in Europe during the summer of 1212 in which thousands of young people took Crusading vows and set out to recover Jerusalem from the Muslims (Islām). Lasting only from May to September, the Children's Crusade lacked official sanction and ended in failure; none of the participants reached the Holy Land. Nevertheless, the religious fervour it excited helped to initiate the Fifth Crusade (1218). It was arguably the first European youth movement.

Controversies

      Although it is mentioned in more than 50 chronicles (chronicle) (lists of historical events in chronological order) dating from the 13th century, much about the Children's Crusade remains obscure. Reports in the chronicles often amount to no more than a line or two, and other sources are fragmentary and at times unreliably embellished. As a result, crucial aspects of the Children's Crusade remain controversial. For example, scholars of the period have debated whether the movement was really a Crusade and whether the participants were really young people.

      Despite its popular designation, the Children's Crusade was officially never a Crusade (Crusades). Crusades could come into existence only with papal approval, and Pope Innocent III (1198–1216) never summoned it. These self-proclaimed, unarmed Crusaders voiced their intention to regain Jerusalem and recover the True Cross (a purported relic of the cross on which Jesus (Jesus Christ) was crucified (crucifixion))—which had been lost to the Muslims in the Battle of Ḥaṭṭīn (Ḥaṭṭīn, Battle of) (1187)—but said nothing about how they hoped to achieve their goals. Nevertheless, the pueri (Latin: “boys” or “children”)—the term used by 13th-century writers to describe participants in the movement—wore the insignia of the cross (as did all Crusaders) and took the Crusader's vow, which was binding on those who were at least 14 years old. Moreover, the church recognized their vow as valid. This is known because in 1220 Pope Honorius III absolved a “poor student” named Otto from his Crusading vow. Although Honorius does refer to “a multitude of other pueri” who joined the movement, only Otto's papal absolution is recorded. Although a majority of the chronicles that mention the Children's Crusade do so in disapproving terms, all of them refer to it as a Crusade.

      Were the pueri really young people? Some scholars, such as the German historian Peter Raedts, have argued that “pueri” in the chronicles and other documents does not signify an age group but instead describes a social class of impoverished landless peasants and day labourers of indeterminate age. In fact, many of the pueri and puelle (“girls”) would indeed have belonged to such a social class. Yet, this by no means rules out their youthfulness. The chroniclers emphasized the prevalence of young people in relation to other groups within the Children's Crusade, including urban labourers, mothers, and the elderly. In addition, several chroniclers noted that some parents imprisoned their children in their homes to prevent them from joining. Thus, it seems likely that young people were the most conspicuous element within the Children's Crusade as well as its leaders, though it is also probable that the movement was not composed exclusively of young people.

Origins

      Popular movements of religious revivalism like the Children's Crusade usually appeared when official Crusades were preached. Preaching aroused collective enthusiasm, particularly in areas with a long tradition of Crusading, as in the town of Chartres and its surrounding region (the Chartrain) in north-central France. Beginning at the time of the First Crusade in the late 11th century and continuing into the 13th century, successive waves of Crusading fervour swept over this region. During the winter of 1211 and the spring of 1212 the Albigensian (Albigenses) Crusade was preached against the heretical Cathars (Cathari) of southern France, resulting in strong military recruitment from the Chartrain. Spain, on Christendom's western frontier, was the scene of another Crusading crisis. A Muslim invasion from North Africa in 1210 led to the fall of the castle of Salvatierra in 1211. A climactic battle was expected by Pentecost in 1212. Pope Innocent III anxiously attempted to mobilize the prayers of Christians on behalf of the threatened Spanish church by holding processions in Rome on May 16, 1212.

      It is likely that similar processions were held at Chartres on May 20. In all probability, a shepherd boy, Stephen of Cloyes, and some of his fellow workers took part in them. The enthusiasm generated by these processions gave birth to a popular Crusading movement whose aims were summed up in acclamations shouted out by the pueri: “Lord God, raise up Christendom!” and “Lord God, return to us the True Cross!”

The Crusade

      Under Stephen's leadership, the French participants in the Children's Crusade assembled at Saint-Denis, probably during an annual fair known as the Lendit fair (June 8–24). Contemporary estimates of the size of Stephen's following ranged from 15,000 to nearly 30,000. The anonymous chronicler of Laon says that Stephen was instructed by a poor pilgrim—who was actually Jesus—to deliver letters to King Philip II of France. Nothing is revealed about the contents of these letters, if indeed they existed, nor of any meeting with the king. The king, however, ordered the pueri to disperse. Although nothing further is known of Stephen, bands of French pueri may have then headed north and east to the town of Saint-Quentin. At this point the French pueri disappear from the historical record, their whereabouts uncertain, but it is possible that some of them arrived in the German city of Cologne about July 14–18. Contact with the French pueri is the most likely origin of the Children's Crusade in Germany, which began about that time.

      Attempting to reach the Holy Land, Nicholas of Cologne led the German pueri southward to Mainz and Speyer. There is reason to suppose that there were French pueri, as well as pueri from the region between France and Germany, among them. Little is known about Nicholas except that he originated from the countryside near Cologne and carried a cross shaped like a T (the tau cross), which was his charismatic emblem. Invoking the biblical Exodus from Egypt and the parting of the Red Sea, they proclaimed that the Mediterranean Sea would part for them, a motif of divine election that implies some degree of identification with the Israelites (Israelite). Nicholas then led the pueri across the Alps to the Italian cities of Piacenza and Genoa, where, however, they failed to find a ship to take them to the Holy Land. Their ultimate fate remains uncertain; some of them might have traveled by ship to Marseille, while others apparently journeyed to Rome to ask papal officials to nullify or defer their Crusade vows. Of the more than 7,000 pueri who arrived in Genoa, many remained—cheap labour was needed there and in other thriving Italian cities. Thus, what began as a popular Crusade probably ended as a massive labour migration.

      According to the chronicles, the Children's Crusade was an utter disaster. Few of the Crusaders returned from their journey; most died of hunger or thirst or were drowned at sea, while others were sold as slaves. The chroniclers' story carried a clear message: God did not will it. Be this as it may, the Children's Crusade did confirm Innocent III's belief that Crusading enthusiasm was far from dead. Less than one year later he summoned the Fifth Crusade.

      Despite the extreme brevity of the movement, interest in the Children's Crusade continued through the centuries. It has been depicted in works by authors as diverse as Voltaire, Bertolt Brecht (Brecht, Bertolt), Agatha Christie (Christie, Dame Agatha), and Kurt Vonnegut (Vonnegut, Kurt, Jr.), and countless children's books have been written about it. Its evocative themes still delight the literary imagination.

Gary Dickson

Additional Reading

Norman P. Zacour, “The Children's Crusade,” in Kenneth M. Setton (ed.), A History of the Crusades, vol. 2, 2nd ed. (1969), pp. 325–342, is a straightforward narrative but leaves the question of origins unresolved. Peter Raedts, “The Children's Crusade of 1212,” Journal of Medieval History, 3:279–324 (1977), is a first-rate analysis of the narrative sources, although his interpretation of the pueri is questionable. Gary Dickson, “The Genesis of the Children's Crusade (1212),” and “Stephen of Cloyes, Philip Augustus, and the Children's Crusade of 1212,” chapters 4 and 5 in his collection of essays Religious Enthusiasm in the Medieval West: Revivals, Crusades, Saints (2000), examine the origins of the Crusade, and his The Children's Crusade: Medieval History, Modern Mythistory (2008), traces changing attitudes toward the pueri in history and literature from the Middle Ages to the late 20th century.Gary Dickson

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