Candy

/kan"dee/, n.

a female given name.

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Sweet sugar-or chocolate-based confection.

The Egyptians made candy from honey (combined with figs, dates, nuts, and spices), sugar being unknown. With the spread of sugarcane cultivation in the 15th century, the industry began to grow. In the late 18th century the first candy-manufacturing machinery was produced. The main ingredients are cane and beet sugars combined with other carbohydrate foods such as corn syrup, cornstarch, honey, molasses, and maple sugar. To the sweet base are added chocolate, fruits, nuts, peanuts, eggs, milk, flavours, and colours. Common varieties include hard candies (crystallized sugar), caramels and toffees, nougats, jellies, fondants, marshmallows, marzipans, truffles, cotton candies, licorices, and chewing gums.

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▪ food

Introduction

also called  confectionery 

      sweet food product. The application of the terms candy and confectionery varies among English-speaking countries. In the United States candy refers to both chocolate products and sugar-based (sugar) confections; elsewhere “chocolate confectionery” refers to chocolates, “sugar confectionery” to the various sugar-based products, and “flour confectionery” to such products as cakes and pastries. This article is primarily concerned with sugar confectionery. Other types of confections are discussed in the articles baking and cocoa.

History

      Egyptian (Egypt, ancient) hieroglyphics dating back at least 3,000 years indicate that the art of sugar confectionery was already established. The confectioner was regarded as a skilled craftsman by the Romans (ancient Rome), and a confectioner's kitchen excavated at Herculaneum was equipped with pots, pans, and other implements similar to those in use today.

      Early confectioners, not having sugar, used honey as a sweetener and mixed it with various fruits, nuts, herbs, and spices.

      During the Middle Ages the Persians (Iran) spread sugarcane cultivation, developed refining methods, and began to make a sugar-based candy. A small amount of sugar was available in Europe during the Middle Ages and was used in the manufacture of the confections prepared and sold mainly by apothecaries. The Venetians brought about a major change in candy manufacture during the 14th century, when they began to import sugar from Arabia. By the 16th century confectioners were manufacturing sweets by molding boiled sugar with fruits and nuts into fanciful forms by simple hand methods. The development of candy-manufacturing machinery began in the late 18th century.

Ingredients

Sweeteners (sweetener)

      Sugar, mainly sucrose from sugar beets or sugarcane, is the major constituent of most candies. Other sweeteners employed in candy manufacture include corn syrup, corn sugar, honey, molasses, maple sugar, and noncaloric sweeteners. Sweeteners may be used in dry or liquid form.

      Invert sugar, a mixture of glucose (dextrose) and fructose produced from sugar (sucrose) by application of heat and an acid “sugar doctor,” such as cream of tartar or citric acid, affects the sweetness, solubility, and amount of crystallization in candymaking. Invert sugar is also prepared as a syrup of about 75 percent concentration by the action of acid or enzymes on sugar in solution.

Texturizers and flavourings

      Because of the perishability of fresh fluid milk and milk products, milk is usually used in concentrated or dried form. It contributes to candy flavour, colour, and texture. Fats (fat and oil processing), usually of vegetable origin, are primarily used to supply textural and “mouth feel” properties (lubrication and smoothness). They are also used to control crystallization and to impart plasticity. Such colloids (colloid) as gelatin, pectin, and egg albumin are employed as emulsifying agents, maintaining fat distribution and providing aeration. Other ingredients include fruits; nuts; natural, fortified, and artificial flavours; and colourings.

Products

      Candies can be divided into noncrystalline, or amorphous, and crystalline types. Noncrystalline candies, such as hard candies, caramels, toffees, and nougats, are chewy or hard, with homogeneous structure. Crystalline candies, such as fondant and fudge, are smooth, creamy, and easily chewed, with a definite structure of small crystals.

High-boiled, or hard, candy

Properties

      Sugar has the property of forming a type of noncrystalline “glass” that forms the basis of hard candy products. Sugar and water are boiled (boiling) until the concentration of the solution reaches a high level, and supersaturation persists upon cooling. This solution takes a plastic form and on further cooling becomes a hard, transparent, glassy mass containing less than 2 percent water.

      High-boiled sugar solutions are unstable, however, and will readily crystallize unless preventative steps are taken. Control of modern sugar-boiling processes is precise. Crystallization is prevented by adding either manufactured invert sugar or corn syrup. The latter is now favoured because it contains complex saccharides and dextrins that, in addition to increasing solubility, give greater viscosity, considerably retarding crystallization.

Hard candy manufacture

      Originally, hard candy syrups were boiled over a coke or gas fire. Modern manufacturers use pans jacketed with high-pressure steam for batch boiling. Special steam-pressure cookers through which syrup passes continuously are used when a constant supply is required. For flavouring and colouring, the batch of boiled syrup is turned out on a table to cool. While still plastic, the ingredients are kneaded into the batch; this may be done mechanically. In continuous production, flavours may be added to the hot liquid syrup. Especially prepared “sealed” flavours are then required to prevent loss by evaporation.

      After flavouring, the plastic mass is shaped by passing through rollers with impressions or through continuous forming machines that produce a “rope” of plastic sugar. By feeding a soft filling into the rope as a core, “bonbons” are made.

      A satinlike finish may be obtained by “pulling” the plastic sugar. This consists of stretching the plastic mass on rotating arms and at the same time repeatedly overlapping. With suitable ratios of sugar to corn syrup, pulling will bring about partial crystallization and a short, spongy texture will result.

Caramels (caramel) and toffee

      The manufacture of caramel and toffee resembles hard candy making except that milk and fat (fat and oil processing) are added. Sweetened, condensed, or evaporated milk is usually employed. Fats may be either butter or vegetable oil, preferably emulsified with milk or with milk and some of the syrup before being added to the whole batch. Emulsifiers such as lecithin or glyceryl monostearate are particularly valuable in continuous processes. The final moisture content of toffee and particularly of caramels is higher than that of hard candy. Because milk and fat are present, the texture is plastic at normal temperatures. The action of heat on the milk solids, in conjunction with the sugar ingredients, imparts the typical flavour and colour to these candies. This process is termed caramelization.

      Because caramel is plastic at lower temperatures than hard candy, it may be extruded. Machines eject the plastic caramel under pressure from a row of orifices; the resulting “ropes” are then cut into lengths. Under continuous manufacturing, all ingredients are metred in recipe quantities into a container that gives an initial boil. Then the mixed syrup is pumped first into a continuous cooker that reduces the moisture content to its final level, and finally into a temporary holding vessel in which increased caramelization occurs, permitting the flavour obtained by the batch process to be matched. The cooked caramel is then cooled, extruded, and cut.

nougat

      Although their consistency is similar to that of caramels, nougats usually do not contain milk. They are aerated by vigorously mixing a solution of egg albumin or other similar protein into boiled syrup; a less sticky product is obtained by mixing in some vegetable fat. Egg albumin is a powdered ingredient especially prepared from egg whites by a process of partial fermentation and low-temperature drying. Great care is needed to obtain a product that is readily soluble in water, will keep well, and is free from bacterial contamination. Milk and soy proteins are also used in making aerated confections, generally as partial replacements for egg. Like caramel, nougat may be made in a variety of textures and can be extruded. Soft, well-aerated nougats have become a very popular sweet, particularly as chocolate-covered bars. In some countries soft nougats are known as nougatine.

      Gelatin is also used to produce a nougat with chewy texture. Hard nougat has a moisture content of 5 to 7 percent; in soft nougats it may be as high as 9 to 10 percent. The usual procedure of manufacture is first to make a “frappé,” which is prepared by dissolving egg albumin in water, mixing with syrup, and whipping to a light foam. A separate batch of syrup consisting of sugar and corn syrup is boiled to between 135° and 140° C (275° and 285° F), depending on the texture desired, then beaten vigorously with the frappé. Toward the end of the beating, some fat, powdered sugar, or fondant may be added to obtain a shorter texture.

      Continuous nougat-manufacturing equipment prepares the frappé by feeding in measured amounts of egg solution, syrup, and air under pressure, then beating it. Through a valve, the frappé is delivered into a metered flow of boiled syrup; the two are mixed in a trough with a rotating screw that carries the mixture continuously forward. Other ingredients, such as fat, flavour, or nuts, also may be fed into the screw toward the end of the mixing process.

fondant

      Fondant, the basis of most chocolate-covered and crystallized crèmes (which themselves are sometimes called “fondants”), is made by mechanically beating a solution supersaturated with sugar, so that minute sugar crystals are deposited throughout the remaining syrup phase. These form an opaque, white, smooth paste that can be melted, flavoured, and coloured. Syrup made from corn syrup and sugar is now generally used for fondant.

 Fully mechanical plants produce a ton of fondant per hour. Syrup, produced in a continuous cooker, is delivered to a rotating drum (see Figure 1—>) that is cooled internally with water sprays. The cooled syrup is scraped from the drum and delivered to a beater consisting of a water-cooled, rectangular box fitted internally with rotating pegged spindles and baffles. This gives maximum agitation while the syrup is cooling, causing very fine sugar crystals to be deposited in the syrup phase. The crystals, together with a small amount of air entrapped by the beating, give the fondant its typical white opacity. The proportion of sugar to corn syrup in the base syrup usually ranges from 3:1 to 4:1. The moisture content of fondant ranges from 12 to 13 percent.

      Mechanically prepared fondant can be reheated without complete solution of the sugar-crystal phase, and it will be sufficiently fluid to be cast into molds. At the same time colourings and flavourings—fruit pulp, jam, essential oils, etc.—may be added. Remelting is usually carried out in steam-jacketed kettles provided with stirrers at a temperature range between 65° and 75° C (145° and 155° F). To produce light-textured fondants, 5 to 10 percent of frappé, made as described under Nougat (candy), is added to the preparation.

      Shaped pieces of fondant for crystallizing or covering with chocolate are formed by pouring the hot, melted, flavoured fondant into impressions made in cornstarch. A shallow tray about two inches deep is filled with cornstarch, which is leveled off and slightly compressed. A printing board covered with rows of plaster, wood, or metal models of the desired shape is then pressed into the starch and withdrawn. Into these impressions the fondant is poured and left to cool. Next, the tray is inverted over a sieve; the starch passes through, leaving the fondant pieces on the sieve. After gentle brushing or blowing to remove adhering starch, the fondants are ready for covering or crystallizing. A machine known as a Mogul carries out all these operations automatically, filling trays with starch, printing them, depositing melted fondant, and stacking the filled trays into a pile. At the other end of the machine, piles of trays that contain cooled and set crèmes are unstacked and inverted over sieves, and the crèmes are removed to be brushed and air-blown. Empty trays are automatically refilled, and the cycle continues.

      Certain types of fondant may be remelted and poured into flexible rubber molds with impressions, but this process generally is limited to shallow crèmes of a fairly rigid consistency. Metal molds precoated with a substance that facilitates release of the crème also are used. The crème units are ejected from the inverted mold by compressed air onto a belt, which takes them forward for chocolate covering.

fudge

      Fudge combines certain properties of caramel with those of fondant. If hot caramel is vigorously mixed or if fondant is added to it, a smooth, crystalline paste forms on cooling. Known as fudge, this substance has a milky flavour similar to caramel and a soft, not plastic, texture. Fudge may be extruded or poured onto tables and cut into shapes. It is possible to construct a recipe that will pour into starch, but such fudge generally is inferior.

Herbert B. Knechtel Bernard W. Minifie Ed.

Additional Reading

R. MacRae, R.K. Robinson, and M.J. Sadler (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology, and Nutrition, 8 vol. (1993); and Y.H. Hui (ed.), Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology, 4 vol. (1992), are general works that cover all aspects of the science of food. P. Fellows, Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practices (1988), is an introductory text.R. Paul Singh Bernard W. Minifie, Chocolate, Cocoa, and Confectionery: Science and Technology, 3rd ed. (1989), deals with candy production methods, machinery, and formulations with scientific explanations. C. Trevor Williams, Chocolate and Confectionery, 3rd ed. (1964), is a general survey of the industry with details of processes, machinery, and recipes in some sections. E. Skuse, Complete Confectioner, 13th ed., rev. and edited by W.J. Bush & Co. (1957), deals mainly with sugar confectionery. Ernest J. Clyne, A Course in Confectionery, 2 vol. in 1 (1955), also deals mainly with sugar confectionery. Journals such as Confectionery Production (monthly); and The Manufacturing Confectioner (monthly), contain useful current information.Herbert B. Knechtel Bernard W. Minifie

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