bankruptcy

/bangk"rupt see, -reuhp see/, n., pl. bankruptcies.

1. the state of being or becoming bankrupt.

2. utter ruin, failure, depletion, or the like.

[1690-1700; BANKRUPT + -CY]

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Status of a debtor who has been declared by judicial process to be unable to pay his or her debts.

It also refers to the legal process involved: the administration of an insolvent debtor's property by the court for the benefit of the debtor's creditors. Filing by a debtor is called voluntary bankruptcy; involuntary bankruptcy is declared by the court upon petition by a creditor. The U.S. Bankruptcy Code makes four types of relief available to bankrupt individuals or corporations: liquidation (under Chapter 7), reorganization (Chapter 11), debt adjustment for a family farmer (Chapter 12), and debt adjustment for an individual with a regular income (Chapter 13). Municipalities may file under Chapter 9. Generally, not all debts are paid in a bankruptcy. The court determines which debts are to be repaid, and the debtor is typically granted a discharge of the rest. See also insolvency.

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Introduction

      the status of a debtor who has been declared by judicial process to be unable to pay his debts. Although sometimes used indiscriminately to mean insolvency, the terms have distinct legal significance. Insolvency, as used in most legal systems, indicates the inability to meet debts. Bankruptcy, on the other hand, results from a legal adjudication that the debtor has filed a petition or that creditors have filed a petition against him.

      Bankruptcy laws were enacted to provide and govern an orderly and equitable liquidation of the estates of insolvent debtors. This purpose has remained an important aim of bankruptcy legislation since the Middle Ages. Because in the past bankruptcy was coupled with the loss of civil rights and imposition of penalties upon fraudulent debtors, the designation bankrupt came to be associated with dishonesty, casting a stigma on persons who were declared bankrupts. Eventually, however, bankruptcy legislation was extended to provide procedures (procedural law) for the adjustment of debts so as to avoid liquidation and for the rehabilitation of insolvent debtors. Modern bankruptcy laws, therefore, include detailed provisions for preventive compositions, arrangements, or corporate reorganizations of various types. In fact, the salvage of an enterprise in financial difficulties has become the principal focus of bankruptcy legislation with particular concern for the maintenance of employment opportunities and the protection of members of the labour force.

      In addition, the bankruptcy laws of England, the United States, and the British Commonwealth nations traditionally came to include provisions for the unpaid portions of debts incurred prior to bankruptcy in order to give honest but unfortunate debtors a new start in life. The bankruptcy laws of the European and Latin-American countries, by contrast, did not have such provisions. In the late 20th century, however, legislation in some of these countries (e.g., Argentina and France) provided for the discharge of the unpaid portion of pre-bankruptcy creditors under certain conditions.

      Since bankruptcy laws aim at the liquidation or rehabilitation of insolvent estates, bankruptcy proceedings involve all nonexempt assets of the debtor, and all creditors entitled to share in the proceeds of the liquidation or in the adjustment of their claims are called to participate. Accordingly, bankruptcy proceedings are viewed as general or universal collection procedures as distinguished from individual collection remedies available to particular creditors for the enforcement of their claims.

History of bankruptcy law

Early developments

      Modern bankruptcy law has been formed from a number of distinct historical strands. In ancient Roman law an unpaid judgment creditor could have the debtor's estate sequestered (sequestration) (missio in bona) and sold for the benefit of all creditors (venditio bonorum). Proceedings of this type caused loss of civil rights. To alleviate this hardship a debtor was given the privilege of relinquishing voluntarily his assets to his creditors by petitioning a magistrate ( cessio bonorum).

      During the Middle Ages both institutions underwent a revival and development. The medieval Italian cities enacted statutes dealing with the collection and distribution of the assets of debtors, especially merchants, who had absconded or fraudulently caused insolvency. Such bankrupts (rumpentes et falliti) were subjected to severe penalties, and their estates were liquidated. In addition, medieval Spanish law restored the judicial cessio bonorum. The Siete Partidas, a codification published by authority of Don Alfonso X the Wise, king of Castile and León, during the second half of the 13th century, contained detailed provisions relating to insolvent debtors, applicable to merchants and nonmerchants alike, enabling them to secure a voluntary liquidation of their assets under judicial supervision. An unpaid creditor could insist on either payment or assignment of his estate by the debtor to all creditors.

      Laws dealing with the property (property law) of absconding and fraudulent debtors, modeled after the statutes of the medieval Italian cities, spread throughout western Europe. Provisions of this type were adopted in the commercial centres of France, Brabant, and Flanders during the 15th and 16th centuries. The customs of Antwerp, printed in 1582, contained comprehensive rules on the treatment of bankrupts and their estates. The emperor Charles V, as count of Flanders, inserted stringent provisions for the repression of bankruptcies in his Decree for the Administration of Justice and Good Order of 1531. There can be no doubt that the first English “acte againste suche persones as doo make Bankrupte,” passed in 1542/43, was inspired by the northern European models, as the title reproduces the Flemish expression. It governed proceedings instituted against absconding or concealed debtors. It was replaced by a more detailed act of 1571 that applied only to merchants and other traders. Voluntary proceedings were not provided in England until 1844 and not in the United States until 1841.

      In France, national rules on insolvency and bankruptcy were inserted into the Ordonnance du Commerce of 1673. It regulated both voluntary assignments for the benefit of creditors made by merchants (Title X) and the proceedings and effects flowing from bankruptcy (Title XI). It was interpreted to restrict bankruptcy proceedings to merchants only, and the laws of many other countries followed the French lead. Thus in Spain the limitation of bankruptcy to merchants was adopted by the Ordinances of Bilbao, which were sanctioned in 1737 and subsequently applied in Latin America, especially Argentina.

      The restriction of bankruptcy legislation to persons engaged in commerce created a need for liquidation proceedings applicable to other debtors. As mentioned above, the Siete Partidas contained provisions for voluntary liquidation proceedings applicable to all classes of debtors. On that basis a Spanish jurist of the 17th century, Salgado de Somoza, elaborated detailed rules for the initiation and conduct of voluntary liquidation proceedings, which were styled “concourse of creditors.” His tract, entitled Labyrinthus Creditorum, influenced the course of Spanish law and also had great impact on the common law of the German states. As a result, Spanish law developed two classes of liquidation proceedings, one for merchants and one for nonmerchants. Spanish law in that respect was the model for the legislation in Portugal, Argentina, Brazil, and other Latin-American countries. Other nations, including Austria, Germany, England, the United States, and nations influenced by English laws, brought both merchants and nonmerchants under their bankruptcy laws. More recent laws in Latin America (e.g., in Argentina and Peru) likewise have established a unified system. France, Italy, and a few countries in Latin America, however, do not provide true insolvency proceedings for ordinary debtors.

Avoidance of bankruptcy

      The dire consequences of bankruptcy for the debtor, such as the loss and liquidation of his assets, criminal penalties, and loss of civil rights, resulted in the need for procedures avoiding such sanctions. A remedy was found in the right of a deserving debtor to reach an agreement for an extension or reduction of his debts with a majority of his creditors that was binding on dissenters. The cradle of this institution was again the statutes of the medieval cities. Provisions to that effect were also contained in the Siete Partidas. In England, similar procedures were developed by the Privy Council through bills of conformity, but this practice ended with the abolition of the council's civil jurisdiction in 1641. In France the Ordonnance du Commerce of 1673 recognized majority compositions as a legitimate means of handling the estates of insolvents without liquidation. The Commercial Code of 1807, however, and following it the laws of other countries, restricted them to a method of terminating rather than preventing bankruptcy proceedings. Preventive compositions (composition) were reintroduced as legitimate means of dealing with embarrassed or insolvent estates only during the second part of the 19th century; they are now recognized in most countries as important devices for economic rehabilitation.

      At one time all bankrupts were considered defrauders and criminals. They were subjected to severe social and professional sanctions, including even a degrading form of dress. In recent times, however, great efforts have been made to remove the disgrace attached to bankruptcy. Even the terms bankrupt and bankruptcy (or their equivalents in other languages) are used less and less frequently in the statutory language. Modern French legislation, for example, totally suppresses the traditional term faillite as the name of liquidation proceedings and restricts it to special procedures entailing the imposition of disqualifications on insolvents guilty of commercial misconduct.

Liquidation of the estates of insolvent debtors

      Most nations with private-enterprise economies have legislation providing for liquidation of hopelessly insolvent estates. Socialist countries treat financial difficulties of their economic organizations in a manner aiming at rehabilitation rather than elimination. By the late 20th century, however, many countries not considered Socialist likewise were resorting to liquidation of enterprises only as an ultimate measure and instead favoured techniques to rescue distressed enterprises, sometimes by direct financial intervention. Conversely, Yugoslavia and, more recently, Hungary have enacted legislative measures in the nature of bankruptcy laws. The People's Republic of China has introduced draft legislation governing the liquidation of insolvent enterprises by way of experiment.

      Liquidation proceedings are often referred to as “straight” bankruptcy, in contradistinction to other insolvency proceedings aiming at arrangements or reorganizations. Recent insolvency laws, such as those enacted in Argentina and France, provide for a unified procedure in which liquidation is decreed only after the possibility of reorganization has been found not to exist or an attempted reorganization has failed.

Persons subject to judicial liquidation of their estates

      Bankruptcy or insolvency laws vary considerably in their applicability to particular classes of persons. The West German act and, following its example, the Austrian and Japanese (Japanese law) acts extend bankruptcy proceedings to all natural and legal persons, whether or not they are engaged in commerce and without differentiating between petitions by the bankrupt himself or by creditors. In the United States, individuals, whether merchants or nonmerchants, as well as private corporations, with the exception of certain financial institutions, are subject to the Bankruptcy Code. Involuntary petitions, however, cannot be filed against farmers and nonprofit corporations. Moreover, proceedings for debt adjustment of individuals cannot be initiated by creditors. Canada likewise applies its act to individuals and corporations. It excludes, however, certain financial institutions and nonbusiness corporations in general. In England the former Bankruptcy Act covered only individuals, whether merchants or not. Registered companies were liquidated under the winding-up provisions of the Company Law. A great number of the provisions of the Bankruptcy Act, however, were made applicable in such proceedings. The dual system still governs in Australia, New Zealand, and India (Indian law). A number of nations, following the model of the French law of 1838, extend their bankruptcy laws only to persons qualifying as merchants or engaging in trade but do not differentiate between individuals and corporations. To that class belong the bankruptcy laws of Italy (with the exception of small enterprises), Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, and a number of Latin-American countries, including Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela. Argentina, Chile, and Peru, however, follow the German pattern and subject to their bankruptcy laws all individuals and corporations, whether merchants or not. A number of the countries that restrict bankruptcy to merchants have, however, inserted provisions for insolvency proceedings governing nonmerchants in their codes of civil procedure. France extends its new insolvency law (1985) to merchants, artisans, and all legal persons even if not merchants.

Persons entitled to initiate liquidation proceedings

      Modern bankruptcy laws provide for the initiation of liquidation proceedings upon petition by either the bankrupt himself or his creditors. There are differences as to the number of creditors who must join in a creditor's petition. A great number of laws are satisfied with a petition by a single creditor regardless of the amount of his claim, the total number of creditors, or the amount of the outstanding indebtedness, so long as the debtor is unable to meet his current payments or has committed a so-called act of bankruptcy. Petition by a single creditor suffices according to the law of Germany (1877) and, following it, of Japan; the laws of Austria, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Switzerland; and the laws of such Latin-American countries as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Mexico. In Austria at least one other creditor must exist, although he need not join in the petition; but the sufficiency of one unpaid creditor is provided expressly in the Chilean and Mexican acts.

      A somewhat different regime exists in the common-law countries. In England, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, as well as India, a single creditor may be a petitioner if the unsecured part of his claim equals or exceeds a specified amount. Otherwise, other creditors must join until the aggregate amount of their claims equals the requisite sum. In the United States in 1978, the unsecured indebtedness of the bankrupt had to be at least $5,000, and a petition by three or more creditors with unsecured claims aggregating at least that amount was required if the total number of creditors was 12 or more; otherwise one or two creditors with such claims totaling at least that amount might be petitioners.

      In some countries the initiation of liquidation may also be decreed by the court ex officio or upon petition by public officials. Ex officio action by the court is provided, for example, in Italy, France, and Mexico. Moreover, these countries and, in addition, Portugal authorize public officials to file petitions for the liquidation of bankrupt estates. In a number of countries, following in this respect the traditional French approach, bankrupt debtors are under a duty to file a petition, and their initiation is not left to their own judgment as in the common-law countries.

Substantive prerequisites of liquidation proceedings

      The bankruptcy laws of the various nations differ materially as to the definition of the substantive grounds for the institution of insolvency proceedings, especially those initiated by creditors. The majority of laws employ general formulas, such as cessation of payments (Argentina); impossibility of meeting current indebtedness with disposable assets (France); lack of ability to pay all debts, taking account of contingent and prospective liabilities (England); general nonpayment of debts, not subject to a bona fide dispute, as they mature (United States); inability to pay or excess of liabilities over assets (Germany); or inability to satisfy regularly one's liabilities (Italy). Some of the common-law countries, including Australia, Canada, India, and New Zealand, require a creditor's petition upon commission by the debtor, within a specified period prior to the petition, of one or more “acts of bankruptcy” or “acts of insolvency” listed in the respective statutes. These acts, which vary among statutes, include public manifestations of insolvency as well as conduct that endangers the collectibility of debts or entails preferential treatment of certain creditors by an insolvent. Some jurisdictions have mixed systems. Liquidation is decreed if the debtor has either resorted to cessation of payments or committed specified acts manifesting insolvency. Laws of that type apply in Spain, Portugal, Brazil, Chile, and Mexico. In some of these laws (e.g., that of Mexico) the commission of these specific acts raises merely a presumption of a cessation of payments. In Brazil and Chile even a single default in the payment of a liquid and exigible indebtedness warrants proceedings if the obligation has remained unpaid after demand. In Switzerland institution of liquidation proceedings likewise can be based on cessation of payments or on the commission of other specified acts of bankruptcy.

Assets subject to liquidation proceedings

      One of the most important aspects of bankruptcy legislation is the determination of the assets to be seized and sold for the purpose of distributing the proceeds among the creditors. Various legal systems have vastly different approaches. The disparities relate mainly to the status of assets acquired by the bankrupt subsequent to his adjudication or conveyed away by him prior to that date.

      In Germany all nonexempt assets belonging to the bankrupt at the date of the adjudication form the bankrupt estate. Assets that are no longer owned by the bankrupt at the time of the adjudication are not included in the bankrupt estate unless their sale, transfer, or other disposal is voidable under special rules permitting the avoidance of fraudulent or preferential transactions. The Bankruptcy Code of the United States follows a similar approach, except that the “date of cleavage” is not the date of the adjudication but the date of the filing of the petition. Post-petition acquisitions are part of the bankrupt estate under the U.S. law only if they constitute narrowly defined “windfalls,” such as inheritances (inheritance) or bequests settled on the bankrupt within six months from the filing date. On the other hand, many other bankruptcy laws include within the estate subject to distribution all nonexempt assets acquired after the adjudication and during the period of the proceedings. Thus the English Insolvency Act, 1986, provides that in individual bankruptcies the bankrupt's estate comprises all nonexempt property owned by the debtor on the day on which the bankruptcy order is made and any property claimed by the trustee (the person charged with the administration and liquidation of the bankrupt's estate) that has been acquired by or devolved upon the bankrupt since that time and until the date of his discharge. Similar provisions exist in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, except that in Australia and New Zealand the date for determining what is property of the bankrupt estate relates back to (i.e., is retroactive to) the date of the earliest commission within a specified period of an act of bankruptcy by the bankrupt. This “relation-back” theory, however, is qualified by numerous exceptions.

      In the majority of civil-law countries that follow the traditional French model, the bankrupt estate likewise includes all nonexempt property owned by the debtor at the date of the adjudication and all property acquired during the course of the proceedings until the close of the case or the rehabilitation of the debtor. Subject to variations in details, laws of that type operate in, for example, Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Switzerland. Some of these laws (e.g., those of Chile and Italy) make special exceptions for future earnings to the extent that they are necessary for the debtor's maintenance. The 1985 French law on economic rehabilitation and liquidation also includes in the bankrupt estate all property acquired on whatever grounds until the close of the proceedings. With the exception of Austria, Italy, and Switzerland, the countries listed above retract the effective date of adjudication to the date of the cessation of payments.

      The insolvency or bankruptcy laws of England and other countries that follow the English model give title to the property forming the bankrupt estate to the trustee or assignee in bankruptcy. In the United States the estate is a separate legal entity represented by a trustee. In the other countries liquidation proceedings divest the bankrupt of his power of administration and disposition, but he retains the title to the assets of the estate. The estate, however, forms a separate unit, often called the mass.

      As indicated above, a number of bankruptcy laws contain a relation-back effect, dating the bankrupt estate as of the time of the petition, the earliest commission of an act of bankruptcy, or the cessation of payments. The model for that approach in the civil-law countries whose laws were based on the French codes was the French Commercial Code of 1807. It required the decree of adjudication to fix the date of the cessation of payments and provided that transactions by the bankrupt after that time and before the adjudication (called the critical, or suspect, period) did not affect the estate. In 1838 France replaced the general relation-back theory with a catalog of transactions, mostly various types of gratuitous or preferential transfers, that were rendered ineffective against the mass if made during the critical period. The law of 1985 in essence retains that approach. Most countries limit the duration of the period of possible retroactivity. Spain is one of the countries still adhering to the general invalidation of transactions following the cessation of payments. Italy abolished the relation-back effect in 1942.

Preferences

      One of the cardinal principles governing the liquidation of insolvent estates is the equal treatment of creditors—the classical par condicio creditorum. Debtors on the eve of bankruptcy, either of their own volition or under pressure, may accord preferential treatment—by way of payment or security—to certain creditors. The bankruptcy laws of most, if not all, countries therefore contain rules aiming at the reintegration of the bankrupt estate through avoidance of preferences given after insolvency or cessation of payments or even earlier. These provisions are included in, in lieu of, or cumulative with a general relation back of the effects of the adjudication. Again, the laws of the different countries vary greatly with respect to the elements that must be present to make a transfer voidable as a preference, especially those of a subjective character such as intent on the part of the debtor or knowledge of the debtor's financial status on the part of the creditor.

      In the United States, except in the case of insiders, the preference period is 90 days before the date of the petition; transfers to existing creditors made within that period that have a preferential effect are voidable, unless the debtor was neither insolvent at the time of the preferential transfer nor rendered insolvent thereby or unless the payment was made in the regular course of business. In England a preference given by an insolvent, or an individual rendered insolvent thereby, to a creditor other than an associate of the debtor is voidable if it was made within six months prior to the filing of the bankruptcy petition and was motivated by the desire to give a preference. In Canada, in cases other than preferences to creditors related to the debtor, the preference period is three months prior to the receiving order (i.e., the order initiating the proceedings). The transfer must have been made or suffered by an insolvent with a view to giving the creditor a preference; but this element is presumed to exist if the transfer in fact had a preferential effect. In Australia the preference period commences six months prior to the petition. A transfer within such preference period by the bankrupt to a creditor that gives the creditor a preference is voidable if the debtor was insolvent at that time, unless the creditor had no reason to suspect that the debtor was insolvent at that time and that the transfer would give him a preference. The New Zealand law differentiates between preferences made by an insolvent with the view of giving a preference and preferences made without such purpose. In the first alternative the preference period is two years prior to the date of adjudication, in the second it is one month.

      The French law of 1985, preserving vestiges of the traditional relation-back theory, invalidates payments of debts made after their due date and the date of the cessation of payments if the recipient had knowledge of the cessation of payments. In addition, anticipatory payment of unmatured debts, payment of debts made by other than ordinary means of payment, or the grant of security interests for preexistent debts are invalid if made after the cessation of payments, regardless of the creditor's knowledge. Rules of the latter type also govern in Latin-American countries (e.g., Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Mexico). In Argentina the payment of matured debts with ordinary means may be voidable if the creditors knew of the cessation of payments. The laws of these countries vary as to the outer limits of the suspect period, ranging from two years in Argentina and Chile to 60 days in Brazil.

      In the civil-law countries that do not adhere to a general relation-back doctrine, such as Germany, Italy, or Portugal, preferential transfers to creditors prior to an adjudication may be voidable, but the governing laws vary materially as to the relevant time frames and types of preferences. In Germany transfers by the debtor granting a security interest or satisfaction to which the creditor at that time was not entitled are voidable if made within 10 days prior to or after a cessation of payments or filing of a bankruptcy petition, unless the creditor shows that at that time he knew neither of the cessation of payments or petition nor of a preferential intent on the part of the debtor. The voidable act may not precede the adjudication by more than six months. In addition, security interests or satisfaction obtained by the creditor after a cessation of payments or filing of a petition are voidable if the trustee shows that the creditor knew of the cessation of payments or petition. In that case the date of the adjudication is irrelevant. Similar rules governing preferences apply in Austria. Voidability is provided if the preference was obtained within 60 days prior to or after the petition or within one year prior to the adjudication after insolvency. Moreover, in the case of transfers to the creditor in conformity with an obligation, the trustee must prove the preferential intent of the debtor and knowledge thereof by the creditor, whereas, in the case of payments made or security interests granted not in conformity with an existing obligation, the only defense is lack of preferential effect. In Italy anticipatory payments of debts that fall due only on the day of or after the adjudication are ipso jure (by the law itself) invalid if made within two years prior to the adjudication. Payments, effected by normal means, of debts that were payable at the time of such payment are voidable as preferences provided that the payment was made within one year prior to the adjudication, while the debtor was insolvent, and the trustee demonstrates that the creditor knew of the debtor's state of insolvency. Payment of matured debts made by other than normal means and security interests granted for preexisting unmatured debts are voidable if made within two years prior to the adjudication unless the creditor shows that he was ignorant of the debtor's state of insolvency. In Switzerland voidable preferences consist in the grant, without prior obligation to that effect, of security interests for existing debts; satisfaction of debts by other than usual means of payment; or premature payment of debts, if the respective acts were committed within six months prior to the adjudication, while the debtor was insolvent. The creditor can defeat the avoidance by showing lack of knowledge of the debtor's financial condition. In addition, all acts committed with the intent to prefer a creditor are voidable for five years after their execution, if the intent was recognizable by the creditor.

      Creditors entitled to share in the distribution of the estate. One of the principal objectives of bankruptcy is the distribution of the proceeds of the estate among the creditors. The designation of the categories of claims entitled to share in such distribution, the order of distribution, and the regulation of the procedures for their establishment form an important ingredient of modern bankruptcy legislation. At the outset a distinction must be made between secured and unsecured creditors. The recognition and assertion of security interests is subject to rules that aim at the separate satisfaction of the secured party from the proceeds of the collateral. To the extent that a secured creditor holds a claim that exceeds the value of the collateral—a so-called undersecured creditor—the creditor must comply with the rules governing unsecured debts. Many laws also require timely claim of security interests to permit orderly distribution of the estate. Moreover, the separate enforcement of security interests may be barred by the institution of bankruptcy proceedings. Security interests may be voidable as fraudulent or preferential transfers or because of inconsistency with overriding policies of the bankruptcy legislation. Except for these limitations, a security interest will remain unimpaired by bankruptcy and provide priority over creditors who do not possess a right of satisfaction from the specific property. The French law of 1985, however, subordinates all types of security interests to the rights of creditors originating during the period between the order instituting the procedure for economic rehabilitation or liquidation and the order of liquidation, and there is a general complaint against the consumption of the assets by secured creditors.

      Generally speaking, “bankruptcy debts” or “provable claims” are based on transactions or occurrences prior to the date of bankruptcy. Creditors whose claims result from acts in, or expenditures for, the administration of the bankrupt estate are not creditors of the bankrupt and are paid before the latter. Post-bankruptcy debts incurred by the debtor are not payable from the estate. The line that divides provable post-bankruptcy claims from non-provable post-bankruptcy claims varies. In England, Australia, and Canada debts provable in bankruptcy (bankruptcy debts) include any debt or liability to which the bankrupt is subject at the date of the bankruptcy or to which he may become subject before his discharge by reason of an obligation incurred before the date of bankruptcy. In England liabilities accruing after the debtor's discharge on an obligation incurred before bankruptcy are also provable. The date of bankruptcy within the meaning of these laws is that of the adjudication or making of the sequestration or receiving order, respectively. In the United States the date of the petition controls the determination of provable debts, but “gap creditors” are included if the adjudication follows an involuntary petition. In continental European and Latin-American countries and countries influenced by their laws, such as Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Japan, creditors entitled to share in the estate are likewise those whose claims originated prior to the adjudication, while subsequent creditors are relegated to assets not entering into the estate.

      Under most modern bankruptcy laws, provable debts include all types of pre-bankruptcy obligations, whether matured or unmatured, liquidated or unliquidated, unconditional or contingent. A provable unliquidated liability may be based on contract or tort, including personal injury as well as damages to property. This also holds true for most common-law countries, in particular England, the United States, Canada, and New Zealand. In Australia, however, demands for unliquidated damages arising other than by reason of contract or breach of trust are not provable. In Brazil creditors with unliquidated claims are entitled to the setting aside of a reserve. If at the time of proof the amount of the liability is still undetermined, many laws provide that it may be estimated.

      In principle, bankruptcy laws aim at equality among creditors. Nevertheless, for social or fiscal reasons bankruptcy laws recognize or grant preferential rights to certain categories of claims. These rights are not security interests in particular assets but priorities in the distribution of the proceeds from their sale. These priorities may attach either to the proceeds from the entire estate or only to those from certain classes of assets. Some bankruptcy laws establish complex hierarchies of priority. The most common general priorities relate to tax claims and claims of or for the benefit of the labour force. In some countries labour claims not only have priority over all other provable claims but outrank even the rights of secured creditors. Examples of the latter approach are the laws of Brazil and France.

Discharge of debts

      An English statute of 1705 provided for a discharge (release) of all debts owed by the bankrupt and due at the time of bankruptcy provided the bankrupt had faithfully complied with his statutory duties. Since that time, relief of the honest but unfortunate debtor from his provable debts has become one of the main objectives of bankruptcy legislation in countries influenced by the English system. The right to a discharge is not unqualified and may be forfeited by the commission of acts that the particular legislation considers as meriting this sanction. Moreover, certain debts are excepted from the operation of the discharge, as, for example, liabilities for support under the governing family-law provisions or for certain types of personal injury.

      In England discharges are automatic after the expiration of specified periods, usually three years, unless the court has suspended or conditioned the running of the period. In the United States a discharge requires a court order, but the debtor is entitled to a discharge unless he has engaged in conduct defined by law that disqualifies him from receiving it and the trustee or a creditor has objected to the discharge. There is no statutory waiting period.

      In Australia and New Zealand a debtor is automatically discharged three years after the date of adjudication, unless an objection to the discharge has been entered by the trustee or a creditor. In addition, the bankrupt may obtain an earlier discharge by court order upon application, which may be subject to conditions. Conditional discharges also may be ordered under Canadian law. Provisions for discharge exist in South Africa and in an increasing number of civil-law countries. Japan introduced discharge provisions modeled after U.S. law in 1952. Brazil, Argentina, and, most recently, France adopted provisions for the extinction of debts to the extent that they remain unsatisfied by dividend payments. In France that rule is absolute; in Argentina and Brazil it is subject to specified conditions and qualifications.

Roles of the court, the administrator, and the creditors in bankruptcy proceedings

      Since insolvency proceedings aim at a judicially approved or supervised rehabilitation or liquidation of the estate of an insolvent, the proceedings must be initiated in a court having the necessary judicial powers. The bankruptcy laws of different countries, however, vary considerably with respect to the jurisdiction of the bankruptcy court over the phases of a case and the relative roles assigned to judicial officers, administrators, and creditors in the conduct of a case.

      During the formative period of bankruptcy law in the 18th and 19th centuries, the courts developed the doctrine of the “force of attraction” of bankruptcy proceedings, resulting in the concentration in the bankruptcy court of all litigation relating to the creditors or the assets of the estate. Modern statutes still adhere to that idea but with considerable variation. The laws of England, the United States, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand contain very broad jurisdictional grants to the bankruptcy courts relating to the collection and administration of the property of the estate and the rights of secured and unsecured creditors. A number of civil-law countries, following French and Spanish models, provide equally extensive powers to the bankruptcy courts. In some of these countries, however, the jurisdiction of special labour courts limits the judicial powers of the bankruptcy courts. In Germany the settlement of individual controversies, such as the determination of contested claims or the rights of third parties to or in property claimed as part of the bankrupt estates, is left to the regular courts. In Austria, however, the bankruptcy court has exclusive or concurrent jurisdiction in disputes of that type.

      In most countries many functions of the bankruptcy court are conferred upon special judicial officers who may be either actual members of the judiciary (as in France) or judicial officers without full judicial status. In England registrars of the courts vested with insolvency jurisdiction, especially the bankruptcy registrars of the High Court, have jurisdiction over the initiation of insolvency proceedings and a long catalog of matters not requiring hearing in open court. Similar rules apply in Canada and New Zealand. In the United States special bankruptcy judges may exercise most judicial functions involved in the conduct of a case. Since these judges are not appointed for life and with Senate approval, some functions are reserved to the regular judiciary. Similar reasons limit the delegation of judicial functions in Australia. In Germany, conversely, a wide range of judicial functions in bankruptcy are delegated to court registrars (called Rechtspfleger) who perform judicial functions outside the regular judiciary.

      Creditors have traditionally played an important part in the conduct of insolvency cases. In most countries, however, they are no longer the dominant parties. The courts, assisted by official administrators, have emerged as the key figures. Under the 1985 French law even the creditor's representative is a functionary of the administration of justice, appointed by the court from an approved panel. In England the system of creditors' control that existed from 1706 to 1831 and from 1869 to 1883 was replaced in the latter year by a system of joint control, or creditor participation, a scheme that in attenuated form is retained by the Insolvency Act of 1986. The administration of bankrupts' estates is undertaken by an official receiver (receivership)—an office established in 1883—unless a general meeting of creditors or the secretary of state for trade and industry, upon reference by the official receiver, appoints another person qualified to act as an insolvency practitioner to the post of trustee. In cases of summary administration (a simplified procedure that may be ordered by the courts if unsecured debts fall below a certain level) the appointment may be made by the court. Official receivers exist also in Australia and Canada. In Australia the official receiver functions as official trustee only when there is no registered trustee. Since 1981 a registered trustee is the initial trustee if he consents to the appointment prior to the adjudication. He may be removed by the court upon petition by a creditor. The official trustee may be replaced by a registered trustee upon resolution by a creditors meeting. In addition the creditors may appoint a committee to advise and superintend the trustee. In Canada official receivers, appointed by the governor in council, are not trustees of the insolvent estate but exercise supervisory authority. The initial trustee is appointed by the court from a list of licensed trustees but is subject to being replaced by another licensed trustee by means of a special resolution adopted at any meeting of the creditors. In New Zealand the administration of insolvent estates is entrusted to official assignees, appointed under the State Services Act. The creditors may appoint a committee to assist the assignee in the exercise of his functions. In the United States the court appoints an interim trustee to serve until the creditors elect another qualified person to serve as trustee in the case; if the creditors fail to act, the interim trustee remains in office. By way of experiment, administrative officers, called U.S. trustees, are appointed for some districts to serve as interim trustees and, if the creditors make no other election, as trustees. In Chile trustees are licensed and supervised by a governmental agency. In the order of adjudication the judge appoints an interim trustee who remains in office if his appointment is ratified in the first meeting of the creditors, though they may appoint another licensed person as definitive trustee. Chile's bankruptcy act of 1982 has restored creditors' control to some extent. In Switzerland bankruptcy offices are established for each of the bankruptcy districts created by the individual cantons. The bankruptcy office is in charge of the progress of the proceedings and acts as trustee unless the creditors select one of their choice. In Italy the bankruptcy judge appoints the trustee and selects a committee from among the creditors. The committee has merely advisory and supervisory functions. A meeting of creditors is summoned only for the determination of provable debts.

Rehabilitation and reorganization of insolvent estates

      The principal focus of modern insolvency legislation rests no longer on the liquidation and elimination of insolvent estates but on the remodeling of the financial and, if necessary, organizational structure of a debtor in economic difficulties so as to permit the continuation of the economic activities. Procedures for the conclusion of binding preventive accords with creditors, requiring approval by a qualified majority of them and confirmation by the courts, were provided by legislation in a number of countries during the second half of the 19th century. Economic crises during the 20th century gave rise to further legislative measures, providing a breathing spell for the debtor by means of a postponement or reduction of his liability, coupled if necessary with a change in ownership. Thus a German law of 1916 provided for avoidance of bankruptcy and executions by a procedure placing the debtor, upon his petition, under judicially supervised management. Similar procedures were introduced subsequently into the companies acts of South Africa and Australia and are now incorporated into the English Insolvency Act, 1986, as a new avenue of relief for debtors threatened with insolvency (administration orders procedure). In addition, the laws of England, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand outline procedures for preventive composition and schemes of arrangement with creditors by companies or individual debtors. Procedures for preventive accords also exist in many civil-law countries—e.g., Austria, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Mexico. Italy has enacted special legislation for the extraordinary management of large enterprises in economic difficulties. Usually judicial compositions affect only the rights of unsecured creditors. Secured creditors must specifically and individually assent to any modification of their rights. In the case of corporate debtors, however, effective restoration of the viability of the enterprise may require much more drastic measures. Therefore, the United States, Japan, and, more recently, Argentina and Chile have enacted laws establishing procedures to permit the formulation and judicial confirmation of reorganization plans, the provisions of which may include elimination of ownership rights and significant curtailments of the rights of secured creditors. Austria reformed its composition act in 1982 by adding a preliminary procedure, resembling the old German management supervision order, to facilitate voluntary reorganization, especially refinancing. The most comprehensive legislation aimed at the salvage of distressed enterprises is the French insolvency legislation of 1985. This law provides a unified procedure establishing a mandatory period of observation to determine whether the insolvent enterprise can be rescued, if necessary at the expense of the owners and existing creditors, or whether liquidation is unavoidable.

International aspects

      Normally the existing bankruptcy laws do not differentiate between foreign and domestic creditors in proceedings involving the estates of residents, at least if reciprocity exists between the countries of the parties involved. Provisions to that effect exist in Germany and Japan and, by implication, in Italy. A number of Latin-American countries, however, give priority to local creditors if there are concurring bankruptcies (simultaneous proceedings in more than one country) involving the same debtor. Equally controversial is the extraterritorial effect of releases resulting from compulsory compositions or discharges in bankruptcy.

      Because of the difficulties arising from multiple bankruptcies or the principle of territoriality of bankruptcy legislation, some countries have regulated that subject among themselves by regional conventions. Among the Latin-American countries are three treaties, binding different parties: the two treaties of Montevideo on International Terrestrial Commercial Law, concluded in 1889 and 1940, respectively, and the treaty of Havana on Private International Law (the so-called Bustamante Code) of 1928. The five Scandinavian countries concluded the Copenhagen Convention on bankruptcy on Nov. 7, 1933. In the late 1980s the members of the European Community were studying the draft of a bankruptcy treaty, proposed in 1980, which superseded a preliminary draft of 1970. In addition, there exist a number of bilateral treaties between different nations on the subject—e.g., the West German–Austrian bankruptcy treaty of 1979, which entered into force in 1985.

Additional Reading

While the general aims and features of bankruptcy law in most countries are similar, substantive and procedural rules vary greatly. Modern reforms are treated in the following: (Argentina): Héctor Camara, El concurso preventivo y la quiebra: Commentario de la ley 19.551, 3 vol. (1978–82); and Enrique J.M. Erramuspe and Stella Maris Di Luca, Manual practico de concursos y quiebras, 2 vol. (1984). (Australia): A.N. Lewis, Lewis's Australian Bankruptcy Law, 8th ed. by Dennis J. Rose (1984). (Austria): Richard Holzhammer, Österreichisches Insolvenzrecht: Konkurs und Ausgleich, 2nd rev. ed. (1983). (Brazil): Christino Almeida Do Valle, Teoria e Prática das Falências e Concordatas, 2nd ed. updated and enlarged (1985). (Canada): L.W. Houlden and C.H. Morawetz, Bankruptcy Law of Canada, 2 loose-leaf vol. (1984). (Chile): Alvaro Puelma Accorsi, Curso de derecho de quiebras, 3rd rev. ed. (1983). (England): Christopher Berry and Edward Bailey, Bankruptcy: Law and Practice (1987). (France): Fernand Derrida, Pierre Godé, and Jean-Pierre Sortais, Redressement et liquidation judiciaires des entreprises (1986). (East Germany): Horst Kellner (ed.), Zivilprozessrecht: Lehrbuch (1980). (West Germany): Ernst Jäger, Konkursordnung mit Einführungsgesetzen, 3 vol., 9th rev. ed. edited by Wolfram Henckel, Friedrich Weber, and Günther Jahr (1977–82); Georg Kuhn and Wilhelm Uhlenbruck, Konkursordnung: Kommentar, 10th rev. ed. (1986); and Bundesministerium der Justiz, Erster Bericht der Kommission für Insolvenzrecht (1985), and Zweiter Bericht der Kommission für Insolvenzrecht (1986). (India): Dinshah Fardunji Mulla, Mulla on the Law of Insolvency in India, 3rd ed. by D.S. Chopra (1977). (Italy): Domenico Mazzocca, Manuale de diritto fallimentare (1980); and Bartolomeo Quatraro, L'amministrazione straordinaria delle grandi emprese in crisi, 2 vol. (1985). (Japan): EHS Law Bulletin Series, vol. 2, no. 2340, Bankruptcy Law (Law No. 71), April 25, 1922 (1976), no. 2345, Composition Law (Law No. 72), April 25, 1922 (1975), no. 2346, Special Composition Law (Law No. 41), Oct. 18, 1946 (1975), and no. 2350, Corporate Reorganization Law (Law No. 172), June 7, 1952 (1983); and Mary E. Hiscock and Kazuaki Soo, “Security Interests and Insolvency in Japan,” Rabels Zeitschrift für ausländisches und internationales Privatrecht, 44:757–783 (1980). (Mexico): Joaquín Rodríguez Rodríguez (comp.), Ley de quiebras y de suspensión de pagos, 9th ed. rev. by José Víctor Rodríguez Del Castillo (1983). (New Zealand): F.C. Spratt, Spratt and McKenzie's Law of Insolvency, 2nd ed. edited by P.D. McKenzie (1972). (Portugal): António Mota Salgado, Falência e Insolvência (1982). (South Africa): Walter Herbert Mars and Harold Edward Hockley, The Law of Insolvency in South Africa, 7th ed. by David Frobisher Waters and Richard Dennis Jooste (1980); Catherine Smith, The Law of Insolvency, 2nd ed. (1982); and David Shrand, The Law and Practice of Insolvency Winding-Up of Companies and Judicial Management, 3rd ed. (1977). (Spain): Francisco Ramos Méndez, Derecho procesal civil (1980), especially ch. 77, pp. 1175–1212; and Ministerio de Justicia, Secretaría General Técnica, Anteproyecto de ley concursal (1983). (Switzerland): Hans Fritzsche, Schuldbetreibung und Konkurs nach schweizerischem Recht, 3rd ed. edited by Hans Ulrich Walder-Bohner (1984– ). (United States): Lawrence P. King (ed.), Collier on Bankruptcy, 15th ed., 7 loose-leaf vol. (1979–87). (Venezuela): José Ramón Burgos Villasmil, La quiebra en el derecho venezolano (1985).Stefan Albrecht Riesenfeld

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