Australian Capital Territory

a federal territory on the continent of Australia in the SE part: includes Canberra, capital of the Commonwealth of Australia. 221,609; 939 sq. mi. (2430 sq. km). Formerly, Federal Capital Territory.

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Political entity (pop., 2001: 321,680), southeastern Australia.

A capital territory was mandated by the 1901 Australian constitution; the site was chosen in 1908. It lies within New South Wales and consists of Canberra and the area around Jervis Bay. Parliament moved there from Melbourne in 1927. In 1989 the Territory received responsibility for self-government similar to that held by Australian states.

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▪ territory, Australia

Introduction

formerly  Yass-Canberra 

Australian Capital Territory, flag of   political entity of the Commonwealth of Australia consisting of Canberra, the national capital, and surrounding land. Most of the Australian Capital Territory lies within the Southern Tablelands district of New South Wales in southeastern Australia, but there is also an area of some 28 square miles (73 square km) to the east on the Tasman Sea coast at Jervis Bay. Canberra is located in the northeastern corner of the territory, about 185 miles (300 km) southwest of Sydney, 290 miles (465 km) northeast of Melbourne, and 95 miles (150 km) from the coast. The entire territory lies between latitudes 35° and 36° S and extends some 53 miles (85 km) north to south and 33 miles (53 km) east to west.

      The Australian constitution mandated establishing such a capital territory. The site was chosen in 1908, construction began in 1911, and parliament moved from the temporary capital, Melbourne, into the first Parliament House in 1927. Area 910 square miles (2,358 square km). Pop. (2006) 324,034.

Land

Relief

 The western boundary of the territory follows the watershed of the Brindabella Range, a northern extension of the Snowy Mountains. The territory's southern and western parts are mountainous, reaching a maximum height of 6,279 feet (1,914 metres) at Bimberi Peak. In the northeastern section there are broad valleys between rounded hills. While much of the generally rugged topography of the Australian Capital Territory allows small-scale farming, forestry, and grazing, only about one-third of the territory is suitable for urban development.

Drainage and soils

      The area is drained by the Murrumbidgee River, which flows from the Snowy Mountains northward through the territory. The boundaries of the territory were drawn in part to provide Canberra with its own water supply. One of the major tributaries of the Murrumbidgee within the region is the Cotter River, which drains the western area and provides most of Canberra's water supply from three storage lakes. Another major tributary is the Molonglo River, which runs through the centre of the city, where it is dammed to form Lake Burley Griffin, one of the major landscape design features in the centre of Canberra. Smaller tributaries have been dammed to form ornamental lakes that serve also as basins for drainage in the urban districts of Gungahlin, Belconnen, and Tuggeranong. Increasingly, locally treated sewage and water from the lakes are being used to irrigate playing fields in the city.

      The Canberra plains are covered by red-yellow soils and the western mountains by thin skeletal (or granular) soils. Although soils over most of the territory are shallow, varying in depth from a few inches to about three feet (one metre), pockets of deep alluvial soils along the banks of the Molonglo and Murrumbidgee rivers are a source for garden topsoil in the city.

Climate

      The Australian Capital Territory has a continental climate with marked seasonal and diurnal variations in temperature. Temperatures range between 14 and 108 °F (−10 and 42 °C); the daily maximum often exceeds 86 °F (30 °C) in summer (December through February). During the winter (June through August), temperatures are lower, and the higher parts of the mountains are covered with snow. Frosts occur on most winter nights, but the days are usually sunny and often warm.

      The average annual precipitation is 25 inches (630 mm). Although it is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, precipitation is somewhat less (about 1.6 inches [40 mm] per month) in the winter. Because rainfall is unreliable, with periods of drought and flooding, large storage reservoirs are needed to ensure water supply and to provide high-capacity drainage of storm water. Sudden heavy storms have resulted in loss of life. Rainfall is much greater in the mountains, averaging about 60 inches (1,525 mm) a year. Fogs are common in winter and sometimes cause airport closings.

Plant and animal life

 The natural vegetation in the lower and flatter northeastern parts of the territory and the lower mountainous areas is either savanna grassland or savanna woodland, with yellow box and red gum, both eucalypts (Eucalyptus), and spear wallaby grass predominant among nearly 1,000 native and hundreds of introduced species of trees, shrubs, flowering plants, and ferns. The eucalypts have largely been cleared from most of the flatter and some of the hilly regions. Pines have been planted in some of the hilly areas. Other stretches of land are still covered by dry sclerophyll forests consisting primarily of red stringybarks and scribbly gums. Farther south and west are wet sclerophyll forests dominated by brown barrels, stringybarks, ribbon gums, and mountain gums. In the highest mountains are small areas of subalpine woodland, mainly alpine snow gums. Different species of eucalypts predominate in all native forests. The forested area includes a wide variety of shrubs as well as larger trees; little of it has a closed canopy. Nearly half of the territory is covered by indigenous forests.

      The largest of the roughly 50 native mammal species common in the territory are eastern gray kangaroos, wallabies, and wombats, which are found in the forest areas and in the grasslands at the margins of the forests. Smaller marsupials include phalangers (possums), gliders, and marsupial mice. The wide range of native birds (nearly 300 species) includes currawongs, magpies, ravens, parrots, cockatoos, and lorikeets. Many of these birds, including colourful parrots, are common not only in the indigenous forests but also in Canberra, where they are attracted by the native and introduced trees and shrubs found throughout the urban area. There is much less birdlife in the pine forests. More than a dozen frog, several dozen reptile, and nearly a dozen fish species inhabit the territory. Eastern brown snakes, red-bellied black snakes, and several lizards are common, especially near watercourses, but snakes are seldom found in urban areas. Among the nonendemic animals found in the forests are wild pigs, goats, and horses and, in the grasslands, foxes, rabbits, and hares.

People

Population composition

      The population has a higher proportion of young adults than the national average and a lower proportion from the older age groups. About one-fifth of the residents—slightly lower than the national average—were born outside of Australia, mainly in the United Kingdom. Some one-fifth of the population also speak a language other than English at home, the most common being Chinese (Mandarin and Cantonese), Italian, Vietnamese, and Greek. About 1 percent of the population are Aborigines. Nearly half of the territory's residents are Christian, the Roman Catholic and Anglican denominations together accounting for more than two-fifths of the population. The average household income in the territory is significantly higher than that for Australia as a whole, and a greater proportion of the population has completed postsecondary education. Within Canberra there is not a high level of segregation of the population by income or social class, but younger families with small children predominate in the newer suburbs.

      The population of the territory grew rapidly during the 1960s and early '70s, when government departments were transferred from Melbourne to Canberra and government employment was expanding rapidly. In subsequent years the growth rate fell to less than the national average. The main sources of population growth have been natural increase and in-migration from other parts of Australia, principally New South Wales and Victoria.

Settlement patterns

      Virtually all of the residents of the Australian Capital Territory live in Canberra and its suburbs. Of the tiny remainder, some live in villages and rural areas and the rest at Jervis Bay, at an Aboriginal settlement at Wreck Bay, and at the Royal Australian Naval College. Just across the New South Wales border from Canberra, and part of the metropolitan area, is the city of Queanbeyan. Namadgi National Park is situated in the southern and western mountainous parts of the territory and adjoins the large Kosciusko National Park in New South Wales. Including smaller nature parks in and around Canberra, Tidbinbilla and Jervis Bay nature reserves, and Namadgi, conservation areas cover roughly half of the area of the Australian Capital Territory.

      Some one-fourth of the territory is occupied by rural holdings used predominantly for grazing sheep and cattle. About one-tenth of the land is urban, and roughly the same amount is used for plantation forestry and is planted mostly with Pinus radiata.

       Canberra is a planned city in which market forces have operated within a framework set by planning decisions, although more recently the market component has become more influential. Planning has been effective, because the federal government purchased and subsequently retained ownership of all the land. Land is leased for private residential and commercial use, and its use is controlled by conditions specified in leases. The older parts of Canberra, on each side of Lake Burley Griffin, include the parliamentary triangle, the largest concentrations of government offices, and the main commercial centre of the city. The central parts of the city accord quite closely with the 1912 plan of American architect Walter Burley Griffin (Griffin, Walter Burley). The design takes advantage of the physical features of the site, the hills and the floodplain of the Molonglo River. Its focus is on the parliamentary triangle and the land axis from Mount Ainslie north of Lake Burley Griffin to Parliament House on Capital Hill to the south.

      Each of the newer urban districts of Woden–Weston Creek, Belconnen, Tuggeranong, and Gungahlin includes residential suburbs, a major regional centre, and local service centres. These districts were developed according to modern town planning and urban design principles in order to provide services and job opportunities in each urban district close to where people live. This is a matter of some controversy; commercial interests have argued successfully for greater concentration of businesses in the city centre rather than in the surrounding districts.

      The hills that separate the urban districts of Canberra and most of the foreshores of the ornamental lakes have been retained as open space. Partly as a result of this policy and partly in order to preserve options for future developments, the urban districts are separated by large open areas, and the city extends some 20 miles (30 km) from north to south.

Economy

      The Australian Capital Territory is effectively a city-state; the rural areas make only a tiny contribution to the economy. Nearly half of all jobs are in government and government services, and many more depend on government purchases. The economy fluctuates with changes in the rate of growth in government employment and in government-funded construction activities. About the turn of the 21st century, the federal government began to reduce its direct employment. Measures have been taken to attract more private industry, and outsourcing of government functions has increased private employment. Rates of unemployment are usually somewhat below the national average.

Resources and power

      The only significant mineral resources in the territory are sand and rock for building materials. Agricultural resources are modest because of the generally poor quality of the soils. The pine plantations on the lower hills in the northern part of the territory provide some of the softwood used in the local building industry. All energy supplies are imported.

Manufacturing

      Manufacturing has been declining since the late 20th century and employs only a small proportion of the workforce. Production is primarily for local consumers, the construction industry, government, and other local activities. The largest industry is paper and paper products, which includes a large printing industry and employs more than a third of the local manufacturing workforce. Other firms produce food and beverages, timber and wood products, and metal products for the local market. There is a small but growing high-technology sector.

Services

      Service activities are an important and growing part of the economy. Government administration and defense claim the largest segment of the service sector, followed by property and business services, health and community services, and education. Other significant components of the sector include those that interact directly with government, such as the media, lobbying groups, and national associations. With the head offices of all its departments and many other authorities located in Canberra, the Australian national government is the main producer of services for export from the territory. The government of the territory itself provides health, education, cultural, and other services not only to its own residents but also to those in surrounding areas of New South Wales. Excluding wholesale and retail trade, nearly three-fourths of the territory's employment and income are generated by the service sector.

      Tourism is supported by dozens of establishments that collectively can accommodate thousands of guests. Most visitors are attracted by the national parliament and other federal institutions, embassies, museums and galleries, and Canberra's reputation as a planned city. Accommodations, restaurants and cafés, and cultural and recreational services alone account for roughly one-tenth of employment in the territory and a small but significant amount of total income.

Transportation and telecommunications

      Canberra's transport links with the rest of Australia are provided mainly by road and air and to a limited extent by rail. Direct and frequent air services to Sydney and Melbourne connect to services to other parts of Australia and to overseas destinations. Apart from bulk commodities moved by rail, road transport accommodates most freight movements to and from Canberra as well as personal travel by bus and car. The quality of the linking roads had been greatly improved by the early 21st century, reducing the time taken to travel to other parts of the country. Rail services to Canberra are provided through a spur line that joins the main Sydney-Melbourne line 40 miles (65 km) northeast at Goulburn.

      Canberra has a well-developed network of roads and streets that provide for fast travel between the urban districts. High-speed expressways skirt the districts, within which arterial roads follow routes between suburbs, leaving streets within the residential areas relatively free of through traffic. In the urban areas, travel is entirely by road and predominantly by private car. An extensive network of bus routes provides relatively infrequent service, and only a small proportion of the citizens use buses to commute to work; even fewer people walk or ride bicycles.

Administration and society

Government

 Before 1989 the Australian Capital Territory was governed directly by the federal government, though there were partly or wholly elected advisory bodies at various times from the 1930s. From 1989 the territory's government has had responsibility for the functions performed elsewhere in Australia by both state and local governments. Specific areas of national significance are designated for planning control by the federal government. Unlike the situation in the states, the federal government holds a veto over territory government legislation. The 17-member Legislative Assembly is elected by proportional preferential voting in three electorates for a three-year term. Although major national political parties (Labor (Australian Labor Party) and Liberal (Liberal Party of Australia)) have contested each election, representatives of other local groups usually have held the balance of power in each assembly. The executive branch of the government consists of a chief minister and up to four other ministers appointed by the chief minister from the Legislative Assembly. Federal grants generally have been the largest source of revenue, but taxes also have generated a significant portion of the territory's funds. Health, education, and urban services are the main areas of expenditure.

Health and welfare

      The territory has a wide range of health services, and the standard of health in the community is high. Death rates are lower than the national average, mostly because of the relative youth of the population, but life expectancy also is slightly higher than the Australian average. In addition to several public and private hospitals, there are nursing homes, special medical and dental services for children, baby health centres, and community health centres.

      Welfare services are provided for a range of groups with special needs. Public housing, which constitutes less than 10 percent of all occupied dwellings, assists those with low incomes, and there are special programs for the homeless for crisis accommodation. Children, youth, foster care, families, and women are the focus of special services. Community care is provided for the elderly and those with disabilities, as is child care for working parents and transport service for the physically handicapped.

Education

      There is a comprehensive system of education, with private and public primary and secondary schools serving children between the ages of about 5 and 18 years. Some three-fifths of primary school, half of high school, and two-thirds of secondary college enrollments are in government schools; more than half of the remainder are in Roman Catholic schools. Secondary colleges provide education in a setting designed to facilitate the transition from secondary school to higher education or work during the final two years of government secondary schooling. The territory has high retention of students to the end of secondary education compared with other states and territories. A higher proportion of children in Canberra attend preschools than in most parts of Australia.

      The Canberra Institute of Technology provides a wide range of trade and paraprofessional education. The University of Canberra (UC), the Australian National University (ANU), the University College at the Australian Defence Force Academy (ADFA; an affiliate of the University of New South Wales), and a branch of the Australian Catholic University (ACU) offer undergraduate and postgraduate education. The UC and the ACU concentrate more on vocationally oriented courses, ANU on discipline-oriented courses, the arts, higher degrees and research, and ADFA on education for the military services. The Institute of Advanced Studies, which constitutes about two-thirds of ANU, is devoted to research and postgraduate training.

Cultural life

 The Australian Capital Territory is not culturally distinct from other parts of Australia, though it has relatively few low-income families, Aborigines, and members of some immigrant groups. The breadth of Canberra's cultural life is largely attributable to the high incomes and high levels of education of many of its residents.

      Canberra has a lively arts community, fostered in particular by the music and art schools at the ANU. The staffs of both schools include notable artists. Musical performances are held in Llewellyn Hall at the Canberra School of Music, and theatrical performances are given at the Canberra Theatre. The Canberra Symphony Orchestra is semiprofessional, and there is a professional drama company. Rural and popular arts are widely supported. In addition to the Australian National Gallery and the Craft ACT Gallery, which promotes local art and artists, there are many smaller private galleries. The National Library, together with ANU Library, has one of the largest collections in the country. The Australian War Memorial is a large museum with exhibits on all the wars in which Australians have fought. The National Museum of Australia, long under consideration, opened in 2001 in time for the centenary of the country's federation. The Australian academies of science, social sciences, and humanities are located in Canberra. A number of poets and novelists, including A.D. Hope (Hope, A.D.), Judith Wright (Wright, Judith), Marion Halligan, and Geoff Page among others, have made their home in or near Canberra.

      In March Canberra hosts a series of festivities that culminates in Canberra Day, a public holiday in the territory. In September and October the Floriade festival features displays of spring flowers. There is a wide range of parks and reserves. Clubs and private facilities centre on sports, and the Australian Institute of Sport trains competitors at a high level. Canberra's football (soccer) and men's and women's basketball teams participate in interstate competitions; in rugby, the city competes both nationally and internationally. The urban lakes are the sites of nonmotorized aquatic sports. The major skiing areas of New South Wales are within 130 miles (210 km) of Canberra.

      The Canberra Times is the territory's major daily newspaper. The Government Publishing House and the National Library of Australia also publish out of Canberra. Most of the radio and television stations—including those of the national network, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation—that serve the Australian Capital Territory are based in New South Wales. The territory does, however, have a few local commercial television stations.

History

      The earliest evidence of Aboriginal (Australian Aborigine) occupation of the Australian (Australian Aborigine) Capital Territory dates from some 21,000 years ago. At the time of European settlement, the Ngunnawal were the main indigenous people in the region. Aborigines came to the territory's mountains each year in late spring to gather and feast on bogong moths.

      The first European explorer in the area was Charles Throsby in 1821, who named the area Limestone Plains. Canberra first became a destination for permanent immigrants in 1824, and by the end of the 1830s most of the land in the district had been settled.

      Section 125 of the Australian constitution (adopted 1900) provided for the seat of the country's government to be in federal territory, not less than 100 square miles (260 square km) in area, situated in New South Wales not less than 100 miles (160 km) from Sydney. A temporary national capital was established in Melbourne. In 1908 it was determined that the capital would be in the Canberra-Yass district, not less than 900 square miles (2,330 square km) in area, and have access to the sea.

      The federal government began acquiring the land for the city in 1911. The land has remained in government ownership in accordance with the Seat of Government (Administration) Act of 1910. Also in 1911, the Commonwealth of Australia launched an international competition for the design of its new capital. First prize was awarded to Walter Burley Griffin (Griffin, Walter Burley), a Chicago architect who had worked in the studio of Frank Lloyd Wright (Wright, Frank Lloyd) and had also been influenced by the English garden city movement. The foundation stone was laid in 1913, and work began on planting trees, establishing a water supply, and building other basic infrastructure. Griffin's plan focused on an ornamental lake in the east-west Molonglo floodplain and a north-south land axis. The parliamentary triangle was marked by major roads that provided lines of sight between prominent features. Most of the federal buildings and the Parliament were to be within the triangle, one of whose corners, Civic Centre, was to be the local government centre; another was to be the market centre. Residential suburbs to house a population of about 30,000 were laid out north and south of the lake. The strong landscape emphasis in the plan was reflected in the preservation of the native bush on all the high ridges and hilltops.

      Construction was interrupted during World War I (1914–18) but resumed after the war. The first Parliament House opened in 1927, when the population was nearing 6,000. It continued in operation, with many extensions, until the opening of the new House in 1988. Development was rapid in the 1920s but slowed considerably during the Great Depression of the 1930s and World War II (1939–45). In 1947 the population was only approaching 17,000, and most government departments were still largely or entirely located in Melbourne.

      Attempts to transfer departments to Canberra soon after the war were frustrated by the poor coordination of the provision of services. Following the recommendations of a Senate Select Committee for the development of Canberra, the National Capital Development Commission was established in 1958 with wide powers to plan, develop, and construct the national capital. This commission was unique in having effective control over undeveloped land, since it was all in public ownership, and in being responsible for the servicing and subdivision of this land and for the construction of infrastructure services and public buildings. The commission was supported by Robert Gordon Menzies (Menzies, Sir Robert Gordon) (prime minister 1939–41 and 1949–66) and was adequately funded. As a result, the city's population grew rapidly, from 30,000 in 1954 to more than 200,000 in the mid-1970s; thereafter growth was somewhat slower, reaching some 325,000 by the early 21st century. The commission was abolished in 1988 in preparation for the introduction of self-government the following year, at which time planning and development responsibilities were divided between the territory and federal governments.

      The Griffin plan was limited to the central basin. Construction of Woden, the first urban district outside that basin, began in 1962, followed by Belconnen in 1966, Tuggeranong in 1973, and Gungahlin in 1990. Further urban development has been limited by topographical and environmental constraints. Under the Canberra Spatial Plan, which outlines the city's direction for development through the first 30 years of the 21st century, both the territory and New South Wales will accommodate expansion of the Australian capital city.

Max Neutze

Additional Reading

Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Capital Territory in Focus (annual), provides a wide range of statistics and factual information. Office of the Commissioner for the Environment, State of the Environment Report, Australian Capital Territory (1995), describes the environment and the ecology of the territory. National Capital Development Commission, Tomorrow's Canberra! (1970), includes a chapter describing physical features and land use in the territory, as well as a useful historical chapter. R. Else-Mitchell and T.P. Grundy (eds.), Canberra: People's Capital? (1988), contains a series of papers assessing the city as a place to live and deals with policy issues such as transport and urban consolidation. K.F. Fischer, “Canberra: Myths and Models,” Town Planning Review, 60(2):155–194 (April 1989), analyzes the planning and development of Canberra.Jim Gibbney, Canberra, 1913–1953 (1988); and Eric Sparke, Canberra, 1954–1980 (1988), provide a general history of Canberra's development and administration; and Lionel Wigmore, Canberra, rev. ed. (1972), is a brief history. More recent historical treatments include Paul Reid, Canberra Following Griffin: A Design History of Australia's National Capital (2002), focusing on landscape architecture; and Andrew Metcalf, Canberra Architecture (2003), an architectural history.Max Neutze

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