Athens

/ath"inz/, n.

1. Greek, Athenai. a city in and the capital of Greece, in the SE part. 885,136.

2. Greater, a metropolitan area comprising the city of Athens, Piraeus, and several residential suburbs. 2,530,000.

3. a city in N Georgia. 42,549.

4. a city in S Ohio. 19,743.

5. a town in N Alabama. 14,558.

6. a town in S Tennessee. 12,080.

7. a town in E Texas. 10,197.

8. any city that is compared to Athens, esp. as a cultural center: the Athens of the Midwest.

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Greek Athínai

City (pop., 2001: 745,514), capital of Greece.

It is located inland near its port, Piraeus, on the Saronic Gulf in eastern Greece. The source of many of the West's intellectual and artistic conceptions, including that of democracy, Athens is generally considered the birthplace of Western civilization. An ancient city-state, it had by the 6th century BC begun to assert its influence. It was destroyed by Xerxes in 480 BC, but rebuilding began immediately. By 450 BC, led by Pericles, it was at the height of its commercial prosperity and cultural and political dominance, and over the next 40 years many major building projects, including the Acropolis and Parthenon, were completed. Athens's "Golden Age" saw the works of the philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle; the dramatists Sophocles, Aristophanes, and Euripides; the historians Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon; and the sculptors Praxiteles and Phidias. The Peloponnesian Wars with Sparta ended in Athens's defeat in 404, but it quickly recovered its independence and prosperity. After 338 BC Athens came under Macedonia's hegemony, which was lifted with the aid of Rome in 197 BC in a battle at Cynoscephalae. It became subject to Rome in 146 BC. In the 13th century Athens was taken by the Crusaders. It was conquered in 1456 by the Ottoman Turks, who held it until 1833, when it was declared the capital of independent Greece. Athens is Greece's principal centre for business and foreign trade. The city's ruins and many museums make it a major tourist destination. It was selected to host the 2004 Olympic Games.

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▪ Alabama, United States

      city, seat (1819) of Limestone county, northern Alabama, U.S., in the Tennessee River valley, about 25 miles (40 km) west of Huntsville. Settled in 1807 and named for Athens, Greece, it grew as an agricultural and timber centre. During the American Civil War, the town was occupied at intervals by Union troops until recaptured by Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest (Forrest, Nathan Bedford) in 1864. Cotton dominated the economy until 1934, when power from the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) encouraged industrial development.

      Cotton is still an important part of the economy, and manufacturing (including automotive parts and office furniture) and poultry processing have become major factors. Browns Ferry Nuclear Plant is southwest of Athens on the Tennessee River. Athens State University was founded in 1822, originally as a female academy. Joe Wheeler State Park is west of the city. The Tennessee Valley Old-Time Fiddlers Convention is held in October. Inc. 1818. Pop. (1990) 16,901; (2000) 18,967.

▪ Georgia, United States

 city, seat (1871) of Clarke county (with which it was consolidated in 1990), northeastern Georgia, U.S., on the Oconee River. Founded in 1801 as the seat of the University of Georgia (Georgia, University of) (chartered 1785), it was probably named for Athens, Greece. The city grew with the university, was spared the destruction that accompanied Union General William Tecumseh Sherman's march through Georgia in 1864, and became a trading and industrial centre of a rich agricultural area (supporting dairy and beef cattle and poultry).

      The city's industrial activities include poultry processing and the manufacture of electronics and electrical components, apparel, industrial machinery, transportation equipment, and textiles; tourism is also important. Notable antebellum buildings survive, including the Lucy Cobb Institute, the Taylor-Grady House, the Joseph Henry Lumpkin House, and the Church-Waddel-Brumby house (believed to be the oldest structure in Athens, 1820). Many of these buildings are popular tourist attractions as exquisite examples of Federal and Greek Revival design. Athens is the site of Athens Academy (1967), a coeducational college-preparatory day school, and the U.S. Navy Supply Corps School and Museum. It is also home to the restored Morton Theatre (1910), one of the country's first vaudeville theatres owned and operated by an African American; most of the notables of the Jazz Age—from Louis Armstrong to Duke Ellington—performed there. A segment of Oconee National Forest is about 10 miles (16 km) to the south. Since the 1970s the Athens popular music scene has spawned a number of successful acts, including the B-52s, R.E.M., and the Black Crowes. Inc. town, 1806; city, 1872. Pop. (1990) city, 45,734; consolidated area, 86,522; Athens MSA, 126,262; (2000) consolidated area, 101,489; Athens MSA, 153,444.

▪ Greece

Introduction

Modern Greek  Athínai,  Ancient Greek  Athēnai,  

 historic city and capital of Greece. Many of classical civilization's intellectual and artistic ideas originated there, and the city is generally considered to be the birthplace of Western civilization.

Athens lies 5 miles (8 km) from the Bay of Phaleron, an inlet of the Aegean (Aigaíon) Sea where Piraeus (Piraiévs), the port of Athens, is situated, in a mountain-girt arid basin divided north-south by a line of hills. Greater Athens has an area of 165 square miles (427 square kilometres). The Kifisós River, only a trickle in summer, flows through the western half; and the Ilisós River, often dry, traverses the eastern half. The surrounding mountains—Párnis, 4,636 feet (1,413 metres); Pentelicus (Pendéli), 3,631 feet; Hymettos (Imittós), 3,365 feet; and Aigáleon, 1,535 feet—add to the impression of barrenness. Yet such considerations are superficial when compared with the fecundity of Athens' bequests to the world, such as its philosophy, its architecture, its literature, and its political ideals.

      For treatment of the city in its regional setting, see Greece; historical and cultural aspects are treated further in the article ancient Greek civilization.

Physical and human geography

Character of the city

 Athens, with its tall buildings and contemporary shops, is the first European city when approached from the Middle East. When approached from the west, from elsewhere in Europe, what strikes the visitor is the influence of the East—in the food, music, and clamorous street life—perhaps vestiges of a time when Athens was divorced from European society under the yoke of Ottoman rule. Nevertheless, it is wrong to say that Athens is a mixture of East and West: it is Greek and, more particularly, Athenian. The city, after all, nurtured Western civilization thousands of years ago. Athens remains on the world stage to this day, most recently as the designated host of the 2004 Olympic Games.

      Some three centuries after the death of Pericles (429 BC), Athenians entered upon a period of bondage that lasted almost 2,000 years. The city was freed in 1833, and in the following 170 years it was the scene of more than a dozen revolutions, another brutal foreign occupation, and a civil war of especial savagery. This long history of passion and suffering has had considerable effect on the Athenian character. The core of that character is an implacable will to survive, buttressed by a profound sense of loyalty (especially to the family) and patriotism. The Greek Orthodox Church, which is directed by a synod sitting in Athens, was a main force in keeping alive the Greek language, tradition, and literature when such things were forbidden, and most people still support it.

      The millennia of oppression, instead of driving the Athenians into obtuse moroseness, have honed their wit and rendered them tough but supple, while centuries of privation have only preserved their warmth and generosity. The long oral tradition, alive even under the invader, has reflected and stimulated a taste for rich talk. Of course, the poetic impulse to make a good story better leads to considerable exaggeration in daily conversation, suiting a vanity that goes with a sharp-edged sense of personal and family honour and the spoiling of children. The ancient heroes, too, were vain about both themselves and honour, boasting as much about outwitting the enemy as about outfighting him.

The landscape

Climate

      The climate of Athens is benign: frost is rare (the minimum temperature is 32 °F, or 0 °C) and snow seldom lies, while the summers, though hot (maximum temperature is 99 °F, or 37 °C), are dry, and a fresh northeasterly wind often blows by day. The nights are cool. The climate of the city permits outdoor activity the year around and has had an important effect on both the style of architecture and the life and political institutions of the city.

The city plan

      In 1833 there was almost no Athens at all. During the fight for independence, it had been entirely evacuated in 1827, and six years later held perhaps 4,000 people in the straggle of little houses on the north slope below the Acropolis. The newly imported king of the Hellenes, Otho (Otto), the 18-year-old son of Ludwig I of Bavaria, was installed in the only two-story stone house, while his German architects hurried ahead with plans for a palace and a new Athens far out in the fields.

      Below the well-sited but very plain palace, a large garden square, Síntagma (Constitution) Square, was laid out. Today it is garnished in the tourist season with some of Europe's most luxurious cafe chairs, and at all seasons it is hemmed in by tall new buildings and elderly luxury hotels. Broad avenues were created and are still the city centre's principal thoroughfares (Stadíou and Panepistimíou [Elefthérios Venizélou]), between which an orderly grid of narrow side streets was laid out. The housing that developed was generally the sort of architecture familiar in Victorian London: solid, porched, rather imposing, the later imitations graceless and monotonous. In Athens it is called the Othonian style, but there is little of it left as the centre encroaches on old residential areas.

      Once the new capital was established, the city grew at a regular rate of about 7 percent a year, soon reaching 50,000 inhabitants, a figure not much exceeded in the days of Athens' greatest power and glory. By 1907 the municipality had a population of 167,479. Omónia (Harmony) Square had been built at the western end of the two main streets, with other broad avenues radiating from it, but it did not develop as the hoped-for balance to Síntagma.

      By then the railway to Piraeus had been built, its station near the antique Agora. Indeed, the city plan projected a logical growth southward along this axis, but a real-estate developer beckoned northward—the National Archaeological Museum is out this way—and the newly rich followed. The palace garden almost touched the Arch of Hadrian and the 15 mammoth columns (some of them seven feet 10 inches in diameter) of the temple of Olympian Zeus, last of the Classical buildings built in Athens, and beyond lay empty fields. The slopes of Mt. Likavittós, outside the town limits, were still pine-clad. Since then, the garden has become one of the painfully rare public parks in Athens. Likavittós now rears up in the middle of the city (as if Hyde Park or Central Park were a 1,112-foot mountain), its lower slopes built upon, and many of the trees felled for a road leading to a cog railway and restaurant.

      Along Panepistimíou Street rose the Academy of Athens, in marble from Mt. Pentelicus, its pediments and colonnades gilded. Its new neighbours were the University of Athens (refounded in 1837), the colonnade adorned with paintings, and the National Library. All were done in Greek Revival style by the court's German architects. A new Royal Palace (now the Presidential Residence) was built during 1891–97, a little southeast of the old (which is now a Parliament house) on Herodes Atticus Street. This leads to the 70,000-seat Panathenaic (Athens) Stadium, reconstructed by an expatriate Greek millionaire in time for the revival of the Olympic Games in 1896.

      In 1921 the orderly progress of Athens was overturned and haphazard development (urbanization) began, for ethnic minorities were exchanged between Greece and Turkey, and approximately 1,500,000 Greeks, most of them penniless, came home from Asia Minor. Despite government efforts to resettle them elsewhere, many swarmed into shantytowns around the fringes of Athens and Piraeus, and the area's population soared from 473,000 to 718,000. After that, the city began to spread in two directions, south toward Piraeus and north toward the village of Kifisiá, which first became a smart suburb when Herodes Atticus built his villa there in the 1st century BC.

      In the 1940s (World War II) hideous things happened in Athens. During the German occupation many people died from starvation, and the city began to fall apart from lack of maintenance. When the Germans left, part of the Allied-equipped resistance refused to lay down its arms, and the civil war began. For a while the government held only the Parliament building, neighbouring embassies, and a part of Síntagma Square, while the palace garden was used as a common grave.

Housing

 A construction boom began in the 1950s. New apartment houses pushing up everywhere erased old social boundaries (though the Kolonáki district on the southeast slope of Likavittós remained an enclave of respectable fortunes), and villages that had been attached to the city in the previous expansion lost their physical and political identities. A network of major highways was thrown up. The west side of the historic olive grove by the Kifisós River was shorn, and hillside greenery began to disappear under housing, either unauthorized or made legal through political skulduggery. Open space vanished, without provision for parks, playgrounds, or even schools, and Athens spread down to the sea by Glifádha, joining up with Piraeus. Piraeus itself was transformed from one of the world's celebrated honky-tonk ports into a clean, newly built, flower-decorated city.

      The Athens master plan was enlarged several times to keep pace with spread, which by 1964 had already attained 75 square miles, with a built-up area of 17 square miles outside the plan altogether. Land values in the centre quadrupled, then octupled, and rose proportionately elsewhere. Traffic increased almost to the saturation point at rush hours, and the city continued to sprawl beyond its planned limits. As international tourism increased, Ellinikón Airport, south of the city, was expanded and modernized.

      The city water supply from an artificial lake at Marathon was insufficient to supply the new building construction, and the Mórnos River 110 miles to the northwest was dammed and tapped. Installation of a modern sewer system was undertaken, together with controls to check the floods that roar into Athens when heavy rains pour off the denuded mountains.

Traditional features

      The older Athens has not entirely disappeared in all this hubbub. Older men may have given up smoking hookahs in shadowy cafes but not their 33-bead kombouloi (“worry beads”), which were acquired from the Turks. Old Athens occupies the six streets sidling off Monastiráki Square, by the excavated Agora. Tiny open-fronted shops are hung with tinselled folk costumes and all of the monuments of Athens reproduced in copper, plaster, plastic, and paint. There is an alley of antique dealers, a street of smithies, one of hardware merchants, and another of wildly assorted miscellany.

      Close to this lively quarter is the Pláka, on the north slope of the Acropolis. Small, one-story houses, dating from about the time of independence, are clustered together up the hillside in peasant simplicity. There are appropriately tiny squares with tavernas, once celebrated for their folk music, dancing, and simple fare. There are vine-covered pergolas and some unpaved streets too narrow for cars. The baths built by the Turks still function morning and afternoon, but the bouzouki, a local relative of the lute, is giving way to the electric guitar. The taverna signs are multilingual, and the ubiquitous kitchen chair is being replaced by the plastic-ribbed restaurant seat. Progress laps at the Pláka like a vengeful sea, but the Acropolis is just up above, just under the stars.

The Acropolis

  Many of Athens' bequests (all, if the theatre of Herodes Atticus may be regarded as an embodiment of the city's literature) to the world are expressed in and around the natural centre of Athens, the Acropolis (designated a World Heritage site in 1987). Rising some 500 feet above sea level, with springs near the base and a single approach, the Acropolis was an obvious choice of citadel and sanctuary from earliest times. That it could be something more is evidenced in the Parthenon, one of the brightest jewels in mankind's, let alone Athens', treasury.

 As deceptively simple as Socrates' conversation, this columned, oblong temple is the expression—without a trace of strain or conflict—of a human ideal of clarity and unity. The architectural genius is concentrated in the exterior, for within was a shelter for the goddess Athena—the patroness who lent her name to the city—not a place for mass worship. Its spiritual quality, the sensation of being almost afloat, is enhanced by the lack of a single, straight, vertical line in the peristyle (the surrounding colonnade); each vertical is almost imperceptibly bowed, theoretically meeting some 11,500 feet in the sky. The columns (entasis), of diminishing thickness toward the centre of the colonnade, with diminishing space between them, lean toward the centre, too; all these differences are virtually invisible to the beholder. Even the 20 flutings of each column diminish in width as they rise, and the humblest details of craftsmanship are perfect.

 On the northeast corner of the interior are faint traces of Christian wall paintings dating from the temple's service as the Church of St. Mary, and in the southwest corner of the porch is the stair leading to the minaret that was added when the building was a Turkish mosque. The Parthenon was also used as a powder magazine, when, on September 26, 1687, Venetian (Venice) artillery, attacking the Turks from the Hill of the Muses, scored a direct hit. A member of the party with the field commander, General Königsmark, wrote, “How it dismayed His Excellency to destroy the beautiful temple which had existed three thousand years!” Conversely, Francesco Morosini, the commander in chief, when reporting to the Venetian government, called it “a fortunate shot.” Wishing to bring home more than just good news, he also tried to lower Athena's horses in the centre of the west pediment, but his men's dexterity was not as highly developed as their marksmanship and the masterpieces smashed to bits on the rock below.

  The Turks regained possession of the Acropolis the following year and later began selling souvenirs to Europeans. The Duc de Choiseul, formerly French ambassador in Constantinople, picked up a piece of the frieze and two metopes. In 1801 the British ambassador, Lord Elgin (Elgin, Thomas Bruce, 7th earl of, 11th Earl Of Kincardine), arrived with an imperial decree permitting him to pull down Turkish houses on the Acropolis to seek fragments of sculpture. Among the 50 pieces he took home (the shipping charges were £75,000, a huge sum for those days) was most of the remaining Parthenon (Elgin Marbles) sculpture, which he later sold to the British Museum for £35,000. The Greeks have forgiven the clumsiness of the Venetian engineers, the accuracy of Venetian cannoneers, and the vandalism of the Turks, but they still nurture rancour against Elgin. He also removed one of the caryatids from the Erechtheum, a temple of Athena called after a shrine dedicated to the legendary king Erechtheus or to Poseidon Erechtheus, but replaced it with a plaster cast. From London he sent a town clock for Athens, duly erected in the Agora and lost in the fire of 1885. The Erechtheum (5th century BC), which later became a church under the Byzantines and subsequently the Turkish commander's harem, was originally dedicated to both Athena and Poseidon and was the most venerated of the Acropolis temples.

      The Propylaea (propylaeum), the matchless entryway into the Acropolis, was the only opening in the surrounding wall. Just in front of it and to the left is the 27-foot-high pedestal for the thank offering to Agrippa (Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius), the victor of the Battle of Actium, who interceded for Athens, which had supported the loser, Mark Antony. To the right was the temple of Athena Nike (Giver of Victory), 27 feet long and 18 ¹/₂ feet wide, which stood untouched until the Turks demolished it in 1686 to use the stones as defenses against the Venetians. In 1836 it was badly restored, and 100 years later its foundations began to slip into previously undiscovered Turkish cisterns, revealing the 6th-century foundations of Peisistratus' earlier shrine to Artemis Epipyrgidea (Artemis on the Tower). The temple was then more accurately reconstructed. The northern wing of the Propylaea, the Pinakotheke (pinacotheca), was used by the Frankish dukes, who reconstructed the interior to make a two-story building. In the 12th century Greek Orthodox bishops lived in the Pinakotheke, and in the 14th century the dynasty of Athenian dukes from Florence turned the Propylaea into a fortified castle with a Tuscan tower, which Heinrich Schliemann (Schliemann, Heinrich), the German excavator who discovered Troy, paid to have dismantled in 1875.

      When the Turks, who had occupied Athens since 1456, departed, they left the monuments in a state of ruin, the ground covered with garden plots, and several hundred small huts. After Greece won its independence, Otho, the first king of the Hellenes, had everything that postdated the classical period swept away, set scholars to work identifying the remains, and encouraged some reconstruction.

      According to Pausanias, the Greek traveller and geographer of the 2nd century AD, the colossal 30-foot-high bronze seated statue of Athena Promachos (Athena Who Fights in the Foremost Ranks), by the 5th-century BC Athenian sculptor Phidias, was set up in the open behind the Propylaea, her gleaming helmet and spear visible to mariners off Cape Sunium (Soúnion) 30 miles away. The 6th-century Byzantine emperor Justinian (Justinian I) carried the statue off to Constantinople (now Istanbul), just as Phidias' ivory and gold statue of Athena had been taken from the Parthenon. Both of these masterpieces were lost to other looters in the crusaders (Crusades)' sack of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1204. Other statues stood in profusion amid small temples, such as the sculptor Myron's group of Marsyas and Athena, his Perseus, and his heifer; Phidias' Lemnian Athena and his Pericles; and a gigantic bronze effigy of the Trojan horse. There was an altar to Athena Hygeia (the Health Giver), a precinct sacred to the goddess Artemis Brauronia (named after a statue of her, brought from the town of Brauron), the Pandroseum (a building named after Pandrosos, a girl associated with Athena in legend), where the sacred olive tree of Athena grew, and beyond the Parthenon the great altar of Athena.

Other notable buildings

 Below the Acropolis sanctuary, on the southwest slope of the hill, Herodes Atticus, a rich Roman, built a 5,000-seat odeum as a memorial to his wife in AD 161. A conventional Roman theatre except that the semicircular auditorium was hollowed out of the rock, it was roofed in cedar and had a three-story facade of arches. Repaired but roofless, it is now used for the Athens summer festival of music and drama. A 300-yard-long portico stretching toward the Theatre of Dionysus (Dionysus, Theatre of) had been built some 300 years earlier. The Dionysiac theatre itself, scooped out of the south slope early in the 5th century, replaced the Agora stage as the drama centre. It also replaced the Pnyx as the meeting place for the popular assembly. Rebuilt many times, the ruined theatre now visible is largely Roman, the last construction work on the stage probably dating from the early 3rd century AD. The Dionysia (Bacchanalia), the spring festival, which drew crowds from many parts of Greece and colonies in Asia Minor and Italy, was held in this theatre, which had 13,000 seats in 67 rows. The jury had larger front seats and the ecclesiastical dignitaries small stone thrones, on which their titles can still be read. Three tragic and four comic plays were presented in competition for the prize. Production costs were met by private sponsors (choragus) who, when their choruses won the prize tripod, displayed it in an elaborate memorial in the Street of Tripods to the east of the theatre. The only one of these monuments still standing is that of Lysicrates (Lysicrates, Monument of), erected 334 BC, a small circular temple 21 ¹/₂ feet high, its six columns an early example of the Corinthian order. The monument was preserved through incorporation into a convent (in which the English poet Lord Byron had a study) and influenced British Georgian (Georgian style) and Regency (Regency style) architecture through the engravings of the Edinburgh artist “Athenian” Stuart. Farther east lay the Odeum of Pericles, and to the west are traces (420 BC) of the precinct of Asclepius, the god of healing, which took the form of a hospital portico for patients and temples decorated with votive reliefs.

      On the Hill of Ares, the god of war, to the right of the descent from the Propylaea, a legendary jury of gods spared Ares from execution for the murder of the sea god Poseidon's son. Trials for homicide continued to be heard on this hill through the ages, and the Supreme Court of Greece still bears the name.

      Across Apostólou Pávlou (Apostle Paul Avenue) are the Hill of the Nymphs, where an Austro-Greek, Baron Sina, built an observatory in 1842; the Hill of the Muses, crowned with the remains of the marble monument to Philopappus, a Syrian who was Roman consul in the 2nd century AD; and the middle hill, the Pnyx (Tightly Crowded Together), the meeting place of the Ecclesia, the assembly of 18,000 citizens who heard the great Athenian orators. (In fact, attendance of more than 5,000 persons was rare at any gathering, but the Pnyx would still have been crowded.)

The agora

      The avenue leads down to the Agora, which the American School of Classical Studies started restoring in 1931, paying $2,500,000 compensation to the several hundred families living there. Financed by, among others, the Rockefeller Foundation, the Marshall Plan, and the Greek government, the work went on until 1960. It includes what has been called “the pitiless replica of a 180-columned portico of the 2nd century BC,” which serves as a museum.

      At the approaches to the Agora is the best preserved of all Greek temples, the Theseum (5th century BC). Although virtually intact and absolutely genuine, it has all the deadness of a latter-day reproduction. The beauty, the mystery, and the genius that render the Parthenon incandescent eluded the architects and builders of the Theseum.

The Horologium and the Orthodox cathedrals

      Another monument is the octagonal, 42-foot-high marble Horologium of Andronicus of Cyrrhus, usually called the Tower of the Winds (Winds, Tower of the) because each side bears a weatherbeaten figure of the wind from that particular compass point. It used to have a sundial, a water clock for telling the hour on cloudy days, and a weather vane. The Turks left it unchanged, believing it to be the tomb of two local prophets, Sakhratis and Aflatun (Socrates and Plato).

      In the shadow of the 19th-century, neo-Byzantine Greek Orthodox Cathedral (Mitrópolis) nestles the 12th-century Mitrópolis, Áyios Elefthérios, one of three genuine Byzantine churches still surviving. It is red brick, like the others, and tiny. Its Pentelic marble is ruddied with age, and its outer walls are artfully, if promiscuously, decorated with classical Greek tidbits: panels, votive tablets, and morsels of frieze. Like its sisters, this retired cathedral is charming, unassuming, and comforting.

The people

      The population of Greater Athens increased considerably after the war of independence in the early 1830s. The rapid growth was largely attributable to the great influx of refugees from Asia Minor in the early 1920s and the migration of rural inhabitants from the provinces during World War II and the Communist rebellion (1946–49). By the 1960s Athens had become a bustling cosmopolitan city. Almost all Greeks adhere to the Eastern (Greek) Orthodox faith.

The economy

Industry and trade

      Since World War I Athens has become the hub of all mercantile business, export and import. With Piraeus, it is the most important manufacturing city in Greece. Athens accounts for half of the jobs in industry and handicrafts, and earnings are much higher than the national average. There are cloth and cotton mills, distilleries, breweries, potteries, flour mills, soap factories, tanneries, chemical works, and carpet factories. Exports include olive oil, tomato products, wine, cement, bauxite, and textile manufactures. Publishing enterprises are important.

      The brilliant Attic light, however, is now dimmed by the pall of air pollution hovering over the city. To discourage new factories from further adding to the problem and to stimulate the economic growth of other regions, an industrial wage tax has been imposed in the Athens area, and tax incentives have been offered to new factories set up in other areas.

Transportation and shipping

      Athens accounts for more than half of the cars, trucks, and buses in use in the nation. Furthermore, the number of merchant ships registered in Greece (mostly at Piraeus, the country's largest port) has increased as Greek shipowners, since the late 1960s, have answered the government's call to bring their foreign-registered ships home (though many Greek ships remain under other flags). Scores of shipping offices have opened in refurbished Piraeus, while on weekends shipping magnates sail to the nearby islands of Hydra and Spetse in chrome-fitted luxury yachts, flying Panamanian and Liberian flags.

      The metropolitan transit system includes an electrified rail line, buses, and trolleys. The electric railway, which connects Piraeus in the south with the suburb of Kifisiá in the north, runs underground within Athens proper. Larissa, the main railway station, links the city with the rest of the country and the continent.

Blake Ehrlich Ed.

History

The early period

Factors inducing settlement

      The site of Athens has been inhabited since the Neolithic Period (before 3000 BC). Evidence for this has come from pottery finds on and around the Acropolis but particularly from a group of about 20 shallow wells, or pits, on the northwest slope of the Acropolis, just below the Klepsydra spring. These wells contained burnished pots of excellent quality, which show that even at this remote period Athens had a settled population, with high technical and artistic standards. There are similar indications of occupation in the Early and Middle Bronze ages (Bronze Age) (3000–1500 BC).

      The earliest buildings date from the Late Bronze Age, particularly about 1200 BC when the Acropolis was the citadel. Around its top was built a massive wall of cyclopean masonry (a type of construction using huge blocks without mortar). The construction of this wall probably marks the union of the 12 towns of Attica (the department in which Athens lies) under the leadership of Athens, an event traditionally ascribed to Theseus. The palace of the king was in the area of the later Erechtheum, but almost no traces of it have been identified. The town, insofar as it was outside the Acropolis, lay to the south, where wells and slight remains of houses have been found. The principal cemetery lay to the northwest, and several richly furnished chamber tombs and many smaller ones have been discovered in the area that later became the Agora.

      Whether through the strength of its walls, the valour of its citizens, or its geographical position away from the main route to the Peloponnesus, Athens seems to have weathered the Late Bronze and Early Iron ages, troubled times, better than other, more important centres. There is no evidence of complete or widespread destruction, as at Mycenae and Pylos; in fact, the pottery styles show an unbroken development through sub-Mycenaean (later than the Mycenaean but not yet Greek) to Protogeometric (the earliest phase of Geometric (Geometric style)) and Geometric Period (1000 BC to about 750 BC). Furthermore, there is positive evidence that from about 1000 BC the city began to expand in a northwesterly direction, into the area that had previously been confined to cemeteries. Wells appear, indicating occupation by the living, and any graves in the area are increasingly confined to restricted plots or placed along the roads outside the town limits. The Agora and some of the public buildings seem, to judge from scattered notices in later writers, to have been located west and northwest of the Acropolis. Though there are few remains of buildings, the wealth and prosperity of the city can be appreciated from late Geometric graves found in the area of the later Dipylon and Erian gates. These graves were adorned with large vases, sometimes more than five feet high, decorated with geometric patterns and with scenes of battles, processions, and funeral ceremonies.

Athens' expansion

      The 6th century BC was a period of phenomenal growth, particularly during the tyranny of Peisistratus and his sons (c. 560–510 BC). On the Acropolis, the old primitive shrines began to be replaced with large stone temples. About 580 BC a temple to Athena, known as the Hecatompedon (Hundred-Footer), was erected on the site later to be occupied by the Parthenon. The pediments (triangular spaces forming the gable) of this temple were decorated with large-scale sculpture in gaily coloured, porous limestone, representing groups of lions bringing down bulls, and with snaky-tailed monsters in the angles. These sculptures are now displayed in the Acropolis Museum. In 566 BC Peisistratus reorganized the Panathenaic (Panathenaea) Games in honour of Athena on a four yearly basis. About 530 BC a large peripteral temple (one having a row of columns on all sides) to Athena Polias (Guardian of the City) was erected near the centre of the Acropolis, on the site of the old Bronze Age palace. It had marble pedimental sculpture representing the battle of the gods and giants. Besides these two major temples there were five smaller buildings, treasuries and the like, and a wealth of votive offerings in marble, bronze, and terra-cotta. The Acropolis thus became a full-fledged sanctuary.

      This change from citadel to sanctuary is also reflected in the arrangement of the entrance at the west. Instead of a winding path suitable for defense, there was, from about the middle of the 6th century BC, a broad ramp, designed as a ceremonial approach, leading up to the gate. This basic change of attitude toward the Acropolis must mean that the whole lower town was surrounded by a fortification wall and the Acropolis was no longer needed for defense. The ancient historians Herodotus and Thucydides tell of such a wall, but no trace of it has been found, and its course and date are uncertain.

      In the lower town, too, the 6th century was a period of growth and change. The old Agora, below the western approach to the Acropolis, was now inadequate, and a new one was therefore laid out in the low ground to the northwest. This was accomplished by demolishing houses and filling in wells and gullies, to create a broad, open square, which was used for gatherings of all sorts: political, judicial, religious, and commercial. Dramatic contests were held there, too, before the construction of a separate theatre. Various public buildings and shrines were erected around the borders of the square, including the Basileios (Royal) Stoa, where the archon Basileus, one of the chief magistrates of the city, had his headquarters; the Old Bouleuterion (or Council House); and a large enclosure (100 square feet) that probably housed the Heliaia, the largest of the popular lawcourts. At the southeast corner of the square a fountain house received water from outside the city through a conduit of terra-cotta pipes.

      In 480 BC this flourishing city was captured and destroyed (Greco-Persian Wars) by the Persians (Achaemenian Dynasty). The Acropolis buildings were burned and the houses in the lower town mostly destroyed, except for a few that had been spared to house the Persian leaders.

Athens at its zenith

      When the Athenians returned, in 479 BC, they immediately rebuilt their fortification wall larger than before. About 20 years later the famous Long Walls were built, connecting the city with its port, Piraeus, four miles away. They were parallel over most of their course, forming a corridor 550 feet wide. These walls played a vital part in the history of Athens during the Classical period, for they allowed it to carry the supplies brought in by its powerful fleet in safety to the city, even when enemy forces roamed the Attic countryside.

      For 30 years after the Persian destruction, the Athenians built only fortifications and some secular buildings in the Agora, notably the Stoa Poikile, or Painted Colonnade, with its famous paintings by Polygnotus and Micon, one of which represented the Battle of Marathon. The Tholos, the round building that served as the headquarters of the executive committee of the council, was also built at this time. Lack of attention to the Acropolis was partly the result of the oath, sworn before the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC, that sanctuaries destroyed by the barbarians would not be rebuilt but left as memorials of their impiety. In 449 BC, however, peace with Persia was at last officially established, and the oath was annulled. Athens, moreover, had ample funds, for the silver mines in the Laurium (Lavrion) Hills of southern Attica were in full production. These mines had always been exploited, but in 483 BC a big strike was made, the proceeds of which were used to build the ships that won the Battle of Salamis (Salamis, Battle of) in 480 BC. Thereafter, the mines remained productive throughout the 5th and 4th centuries, providing Athens with the sinews of its strength in the great Classical age. Another source of revenue was the tribute that the allies had been paying, as members of the Delian League, to prosecute the war against Persia. Athens had been collecting and administering this money and, even though the war was officially over, continued to collect it in spite of the protests of the allies, who degenerated into subjects of Athens. Pericles deemed it proper, over the protests of his opponents, to use this money on beautifying the city; in this way he could keep the money in circulation and provide jobs for the whole population. Thus began one of the largest and most enduring works programs in history.

      In a period of 40 years the Acropolis was entirely rebuilt in gleaming white marble quarried from Mt. Pentelicus (Pentelicus, Mount), 10 miles north of the city. The first great work was the Parthenon, begun in 447 BC and finished, except for some details, in 438 BC. The architects were Ictinus and Callicrates, and Phidias was in charge of the whole artistic program. The building was considerably larger than was usual, having eight columns across the ends and 17 on the long sides, against six by 13 for the average temple. It was richly decorated with sculpture, having a running frieze all around the top of the cella (the walled-in chamber within the colonnade) wall outside, and sculptured metopes and sculptured pediments. Inside the cella stood the cult statue, the great gold and ivory figure of Athena, the work of Phidias. No sooner was the main work on the Parthenon completed than the Propylaea was begun. This was the monumental gateway with five doors at the head of the approach, designed by the architect Mnesicles. Its large outer vestibule was covered by a marble ceiling, supported by marble beams with a free span of 18 feet, about which Pausanias wrote, “The Propylaea has a ceiling of white marble which in the beauty and size of the stones remains supreme even to my time.” Work on the Propylaea was nearly finished when it was stopped by the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War in 432 BC, but, as things began to go well for Athens, the little temple of Athena Nike was erected on the bastion in front of the Propylaea (propylaeum), perhaps in 425 BC. Around the time of the Peace of Nicias (421 BC) the Erechtheum was begun. This was a small Ionic temple of highly irregular plan, which housed various early cults and sacred tokens. When the building was about half-finished, work was suddenly interrupted, probably because of the disastrous Athenian expedition to Sicily (415–413 BC), but it was resumed in 409, and the building was completed in 406. The final defeat of Athens two years later put an end to all building, but the Acropolis had been completed, and in later centuries only secondary buildings and monuments were added.

      In the second half of the 5th century there was also some building activity in the lower town. Even before the Parthenon, work was begun on the temple of Hephaestus (the god of fire), the Theseum, which still stands on a low hill. In the Agora itself, a new Bouleuterion was built, and two colonnades, the Stoa of Zeus and the South Stoa, were constructed. On the south slope of the Acropolis, next to the theatre, Pericles built an odeum, a large enclosed concert hall, its roof supported by a forest of columns. Of the theatre itself there are no identifiable remains, but the arrangements were no doubt quite simple, and it is known that a theatre existed on this spot from the late 6th century BC because of the old temple of Dionysus (the god of wine) nearby, which dates from the same period. A sanctuary of Asclepius was founded on the south slope of the Acropolis in 420 BC.

      Athens was slow in recovering from its defeat in the Peloponnesian War, but in 394 BC its admiral, Conon, won a decisive naval victory over Sparta off Cnidus, on the west coast of Asia Minor. As a result he rebuilt the Long Walls, which the Spartans had demolished to the music of flutes 10 years before, believing they were inaugurating the freedom of Greece. The walls of Piraeus were also rebuilt, and those of the city were repeatedly strengthened in the course of the 4th century, notably by the addition of a ditch, or moat, as protection against siege machinery.

      Apart from military works, there was little building in 4th-century Athens until the years 338–322 BC, when the orator Lycurgus was in control of the state finances and there was great activity. On the Pnyx, the broad-backed hill west of the Acropolis where the Athenian popular assembly had met since the reforms of Cleisthenes in the 6th century, a large auditorium was constructed. At the same time, two large stoas were started on the terrace above. The Theatre of Dionysus (Dionysus, Theatre of) was rebuilt and greatly enlarged, with stone seats to accommodate the crowds. (Lycurgus did another service to the theatre by having definitive copies made of the old plays.) The Panathenaic stadium was also built about then, partly with state funds and partly by private contributions; the land was donated by a certain Deinias, and one Eudemus of Plataea provided 1,000 yoke of draft animals to level the ground. The period was one of lavish private expenditure in other fields as well. The tripods won in choral contests were displayed on elaborate monuments, sometimes even resembling small temples; the best preserved of these is that of Lysicrates (334 BC), a small round building with six Corinthian columns. Tombs (tomb) also became increasingly elaborate, often portraying the whole family in high relief. In 315 BC a stop was put to all this extravagance by the sumptuary laws of Demetrius of Phalerum (Demetrius Of Phaleron).

      Meanwhile, the philosophy (philosophy, Western) schools flourished. Plato (c. 428–348/347 BC) established himself in the Academy, a gymnasium that had existed since at least the 6th century BC in the great olive grove about a mile west of the city. Plato himself had a house and garden nearby. Aristotle and his Peripatetics occupied the Lyceum, another gymnasium, just outside the city to the east, and his successor Theophrastus lived nearby. Antisthenes and the Cynics (Cynic) used the Cynosarges gymnasium to the southeast of the city. Zeno (Zeno Of Citium) held forth in the heart of the city, in the Stoa Poikile, in the Agora, and his followers were therefore known as Stoics (Stoicism). Epicurus and his followers had a house and garden in town.

      Apart from its temples and public buildings and its great avenues, however, Athens seems to have made a poor impression. A 3rd-century-BC visitor complained that the city was dry and ill-supplied with water, that it was badly laid out because of its great antiquity, and that most of the houses were mean. The streets were in fact narrow and winding, and the houses, it is true, presented a blank wall to the street except for the entrance door, but then they were built around a central courtyard, off which the various rooms opened. There was often an upper story, and the court had a well. Water brought in by the aqueducts was not considered good because it was hard (containing salts of magnesium or calcium) and caused rheumatism. Waste water was carried off in an elaborate system of underground drains beneath the streets.

Hellenistic (Hellenistic Age) and Roman times

      Athens in Hellenistic and Roman times depended for its embellishment less on its own resources than on the generosity of foreign princes. One of the Ptolemies (rulers of Egypt) gave a gymnasium, erected near the sanctuary of Theseus, and the Ptolemies were probably also instrumental in the founding of the sanctuary of the Egyptian gods Isis and Serapis. More important were the donations of the Attalids of Pergamum (a dynasty of Asia Minor); Eumenes II (197–159 BC) gave a large, two-story colonnade on the south slope of the Acropolis near the theatre. His brother Attalus II (Attalus II Philadelphus) (159–138 BC), who had studied at Athens under the philosopher Carneades, head of the New Academy, likewise gave a colonnade. This was a large, elaborate, two-story building more than 350 feet long with a row of shops at the rear. It was located on the eastern side of the Agora and has been reconstructed in modern times (1953–56) to serve as the museum of the Agora excavations. The Stoa of Attalus was the first element in a large-scale reconstruction of the Agora. It was followed in quick succession by three buildings, the Middle Stoa, the East Building, and the South Stoa, which together formed a separate South Square.

      The capture of Athens by the Roman (ancient Rome) general Sulla (Sulla, Lucius Cornelius) in 86 BC was accompanied by great slaughter and much destruction of private houses, but the only public building to be destroyed was the Odeum of Pericles, burned by the defenders lest its timbers be used by the enemy. The odeum was rebuilt a few years later, through the generosity of King Ariobarzanes of Cappadocia.

      Under the Roman Empire, Athens enjoyed imperial favour. A spacious market for the sale of oil and other commodities was laid out east of the old Agora with funds originally provided by Julius Caesar (Caesar, Julius) and supplemented by the emperor Augustus. In the old Agora itself, a new odeum, or concert hall, was built in the middle of the square by Marcus Agrippa (Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius), the emperor's son-in-law and one of his chief lieutenants. A large building, perhaps a lawcourt, was also erected at the northeast corner. At the southeast corner of the Agora, a handsome library was erected about AD 100, the gift of one T. Flavius Pantainus and his family. It was decorated with a group of marble sculpture representing Homer flanked by the Iliad and the Odyssey. On the Acropolis a small round temple was erected to the goddess Roma and the emperor Augustus.

      The emperor Hadrian (AD 117–138) completed the great temple of Olympian Zeus, started more than 600 years earlier by the Peisistratids. This temple formed the chief ornament of the new eastern suburb of Athens, and Hadrian gave the area a monumental entrance through a gateway, the inscriptions on which proclaimed, on one side, “This is the Athens of Theseus, the old city” and, on the other, “This is the city of Hadrian, not of Theseus.” Hadrian also built a library, a gymnasium, and a pantheon (a sanctuary of all the gods). His aqueduct, which brought water from the mountains to the north, has been reconditioned and still serves the modern city.

      In the reign of Valerian (AD 253–260), the walls of Athens, which had been neglected since Sulla's capture of the city in 86 BC and had fallen into ruin, were rebuilt, and the circuit was extended to include the new suburb northeast of the Olympieion. This was done because of the threat of a barbarian invasion, but when that invasion came, in AD 267, the walls were of no avail. The Heruli, a Germanic people from northern Europe, easily captured Athens, and, though the historian P. Herennius Dexippus (Dexippus, Publius Herennius) rallied 2,000 men on the city outskirts, they could only resort to guerrilla tactics. The lower town was sacked, and all the buildings of the Agora were burned and destroyed. The Acropolis, however, may have held out; at least there is no evidence of extensive damage at this time.

      This sack of Athens is comparable only to that by the Persians in 480 BC, but now the reaction was quite different. The Athenians abandoned the outer circuit and established a new and much smaller line north of the Acropolis, leaving even the agora area outside the walls. This new wall, which, on the evidence of coins, was built in the reign of Probus (AD 276–282), consisted of material taken from ruined buildings in the lower town.

      Athens remained confined within this narrow circuit for several generations, but in the 4th and 5th centuries it experienced a revival. The old outer circuit of the walls was restored, and many new buildings were erected. Athens at this time was still the cultural capital of the Greek world and a stronghold of paganism. Its schools of philosophy, which retained their ancient names, however different their outlooks may have been, flourished, attracting students from all parts. These included the emperor Julian the Apostate and two Fathers of the Church, Basil and Gregory of Nazianzus. While the schools existed, Athens remained a place of consequence, but, when they were closed by the emperor Justinian (Justinian I) in AD 529, Athens sank to the level of a small provincial town. Power and wealth had long since moved to Constantinople (Istanbul), the new centre of the Greek world.

The Byzantine (Byzantine Empire) and Turkish periods

      Christianity started early in Athens, with the visit of the Apostle Paul (Paul, the Apostle, Saint) in AD 51 and the conversion of Dionysius The Areopagite, a former archon and member of the Court of the Areopagus that had heard Paul's defense of his teachings. The little Christian community did not flourish, however, and Athens remained a stronghold of older ways. In the 5th and 6th centuries, however, after the formal establishment of Christianity and the abolition of pagan worship, churches began to be built. These were sometimes ancient temples converted to Christian worship—for example, the Parthenon, the Erechtheum, and the temple of Hephaestus (the Theseum). Newly built churches had a basilica plan and a wooden roof, but these now survive only in foundations. In all, some 22 churches of this period are known.

      The 7th to 10th centuries were dark times for Athens. The city is almost never mentioned in the history of the period, and archaeological remains are few. In the 11th and 12th centuries a measure of prosperity returned, and the taste of Athenians then can be gauged by the number of small stone and brick churches surviving, built on the Byzantine cross-in-square plan, such as the Kapnikaréa, and those of St. Theodore and the Holy Apostles.

      Athens fell to the crusaders (Crusades) in 1204, remaining in Latin hands for 250 years. The town's outward appearance changed little, except that the Parthenon, now a Roman Catholic not an Orthodox cathedral, received a bell tower.

      After the siege of Athens by the Turks (Ottoman Empire) in 1456–58, the Parthenon became a mosque (1460), and its bell tower was turned into a minaret. Other mosques were built in the lower town, but in general the age of gunpowder was to prove disastrous for Athenian architecture, especially on the Acropolis, which was still virtually intact as late as the mid-17th century.

Athens after Greek independence

      Greek insurgents surprised the city in 1821 and captured the Acropolis in 1822; but in 1826 Athens again fell into the hands of the Turks, who bombarded and took the Acropolis in the following year (the Erechtheum suffered greatly, and the monument of Thrasyllus was destroyed). The Turks remained in possession of the Acropolis until 1833, when Athens was chosen as the capital of the new kingdom of Greece. Its subsequent history is that of the kingdom.

      In World War I Athens was the scene of the incidents of 1916–17 that led to the deposition of King Constantine by the Allies. It was occupied by German troops during World War II, but the city was spared aerial bombardment.

Eugene Vanderpool Ed.

Additional Reading

History and antiquities

Pausanias, Description of Greece, Book I, a description of Athens by the traveller Pausanias (2nd century AD), contains much of interest; among the best English translations of this work are the volume, with brief commentary, by Peter Levi, Guide to Greece, 2 vol. (1971); and the classic translation, with commentary, by J.G. Frazer, Pausanias' Description of Greece, 6 vol. (1898). Other works include T.B.L. Webster, Everyday Life in Classical Athens (1969), on the Athenian at home and in public, Art and Literature in Fourth Century Athens (1956), on the cultural life of the city when it was the intellectual capital of the world, and Athenian Culture and Society (1973), an overview for the general reader; Erika Simon, Festivals of Attica: An Archaeological Commentary (1983), an important study of origins; Richard E. Wycherley, The Stones of Athens (1978), a survey of the architecture; Angelo Procopiou, Athens, City of the Gods: From Prehistory to 338 BC (1964), richly illustrated; Gerhart Rodenwaldt, Acropolis (1957; 5th German ed., 1956); Homer A. Thompson and R.E. Wycherley, The Agora of Athens (1972), two detailed and learned expositions of classical Athens' important sites, with many illustrations; Susan I. Rotroff, Hellenistic Pottery: Athenian and Imported Moldmade Bowls (1982); and Martin Hürlimann, Athens (1956; German ed., 1956), chiefly photographic, with introductory text by Rex Warner and detailed historical notes accompanying the pictures.

For the specialist

A.W. Pickard-Cambridge, Theatre of Dionysus in Athens (1946, reissued 1973), a thorough study of the theatre and its various uses; Humfry Payne and Gerard Young, Archaic Marble Sculpture from the Acropolis (1950), a scholarly photographic catalog chiefly for the archaeologist and art historian; and Jon D. Mikalson, Athenian Popular Religion (1983), an argument and theory based solely on forensic evidence. Blake Ehrlich Eugene Vanderpool Ed.

▪ Ohio, United States

      city, seat (1805) of Athens county, southeastern Ohio, U.S. It lies along the Hocking River, about 75 miles (120 km) southeast of Columbus. It was founded in 1800 by the territorial legislature as the seat of the American Western University, which was renamed Ohio University in 1804. Athens and the university campus were laid out by Gen. Rufus Putnam and Manasseh Cutler. The city grew with the expansion of educational and research facilities and subsequently underwent planned industrial development, with the establishment of facilities for the manufacture of automotive parts, molds, small engines, coolers, compressors, and tools; there is also coal mining in the vicinity. Athens lies between segments of Wayne National Forest. Lake Hope State Park, within Zaleski State Forest, is some 15 miles (24 km) west. Inc. village, 1811; city, 1912. Pop. (2000) 21,342; (2005 est.) 20,918.

▪ Tennessee, United States

      city, seat of McMinn county, southeastern Tennessee, U.S. It lies in the Tennessee River valley, between the Great Smoky Mountains (east) and the Cumberland Plateau (west), about 55 miles (90 km) southwest of Knoxville. It was founded in 1821 as a seat of justice, and the courts were moved there in 1823 from a temporary courthouse that had been erected at nearby Calhoun. It was named for the city of Athens, Greece. In August 1946 what became known as the Battle of Athens was fought as returning World War II veterans struggled against pervasive corruption and vote fraud in local government.

      The city was originally an agricultural community, and dairying, beef cattle, poultry, and tobacco remain important. Industry has become a major part of the area's economy; manufactures include newsprint, automotive parts, furniture, textiles, and electrical products. Athens is the site of Tennessee Wesleyan College (1857). Great Smoky Mountains National Park and Cherokee National Forest are east of the city; Watts Bar Lake is northwest. The McMinn County Living Heritage Museum has exhibits on local history. Inc. 1829. Pop. (1990) 12,054; (2000) 13,220.

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