arachnid

—arachnidan /euh rak"ni deuhn/, adj., n.

/euh rak"nid/, n.

1. any wingless, carnivorous arthropod of the class Arachnida, including spiders, scorpions, mites, ticks, and daddy-longlegs, having a body divided into two parts, the cephalothorax and the abdomen, and having eight appendages and no antennae. Cf. insect.

adj.

2. belonging or pertaining to the arachnids.

[1865-70; < NL Arachnida < Gk aráchn(e) spider, spider's web + NL -ida -IDA]

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Any member of the class Arachnida, primarily carnivorous arthropods having a well-developed head, a hard external skeleton, and four pairs of walking legs.

Spiders and scorpions have a segmented body, but daddy longlegs, ticks, and mites do not. Arachnids range in size from tiny mites (0.003 in. [0.08 mm] long) to the 8-in. (21-cm) black scorpion of Africa. As arachnids grow, they molt several times (see molting). Most are unable to digest food internally; instead, they inject their prey with digestive fluids and suck the liquefied remains. Arachnids are found worldwide in nearly every habitat. Most groups are free-living, but some mites and ticks are parasitic and can carry serious diseases of animals and humans. Venomous spiders and scorpions also may pose a danger to humans. However, most arachnids are harmless and prey on insect pests.

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▪ arthropod

Introduction

      any member of the arthropod group that includes spiders, daddy longlegs, scorpions, and (in the subclass Acari (acarid)) the mites and ticks, as well as lesser-known subgroups. Only a few species are of economic importance—for example, the mites and ticks, which transmit diseases to humans, other animals, and plants.

General features

Body and appendages

      Arachnids range in size from tiny mites that measure 0.08 mm (0.003 inch) to the enormous scorpion Hadogenes troglodytes of Africa, which may be 21 cm (8 inches) or more in length. In appearance, they vary from short-legged, round-bodied mites and pincer-equipped scorpions with curled tails to delicate, long-legged daddy longlegs and robust, hairy tarantulas.

      Like all arthropods, arachnids have segmented bodies, tough exoskeletons, and jointed appendages. Most are predatory. Arachnids lack jaws and, with only a few exceptions, inject digestive fluids into their prey before sucking its liquefied remains into their mouths. Except among daddy longlegs and the mites and ticks, in which the entire body forms a single region, the arachnid body is divided into two distinct regions: the cephalothorax, or prosoma, and the abdomen, or opisthosoma. The sternites (ventral plates) of the lower surface of the body show more variation than do the tergites (dorsal plates). The arachnids have simple (as opposed to compound) eyes.

      The cephalothorax is covered dorsally with a rigid cover (the carapace) and has six pairs of appendages, the first of which are the chelicerae, the only appendages that are in front of the mouth. In many forms they are chelate, or pincerlike, and are used to hold and crush prey. Among spiders the basal segment of the chelicerae contains venom sacs, and the second segment, the fang, injects venom. The pedipalps, or palps, which in arachnids function as an organ of touch, constitute the second pair of appendages. In spiders and daddy longlegs the pedipalps are elongated leglike structures, whereas in scorpions they are large chelate, prehensile organs. Among spiders the pedipalps are highly modified as secondary sexual organs. The basal segment is sometimes modified for crushing or cutting food. The remaining four pairs of appendages are walking legs, though the first of these pairs serves as tactile organs among the tailless whip scorpions (order Amblypygi); it is the second pair that functions as such among the daddy longlegs. Among the spiderlike ricinuleids (order Ricinulei), special copulatory organs are located on the third pair of legs. Some mites, particularly immature individuals, have only two or three pairs of legs.

      In many arachnids the cephalothorax and abdomen are broadly joined, while in others (such as spiders) they are joined by a narrow stalklike pedicel. The abdomen is composed of a maximum (in scorpions) of 13 segments, or somites. The first of these may be present only in the embryo and absent in the adult. In some orders a mesosoma consisting of seven segments and metasoma of five may be distinguished, while in others a few posterior segments may form a postabdomen (pygidium). In general, except for the spinnerets of the spiders, the abdomen has no appendages. In some groups it is elongated and distinctly segmented; in others it may be shortened, with indistinct segmentation. Postanal structures vary in both appearance and function. The scorpions have a short stinger with a swollen base enclosing a poison gland, and the whip scorpions (order Uropygi) and micro whip scorpions (order Palpigradi) have long whiplike structures of unknown function.

Distribution and abundance

      With the exception of a few groups that have become aquatic, arachnids are terrestrial predators. Spiders (order Araneida), daddy longlegs (order Opiliones), false scorpions (order Pseudoscorpiones), and mites and ticks (subclass Acari) are nearly worldwide in distribution. Scorpions (order Scorpiones), sunspiders (or wind scorpions; order Solpugida), tailless whip scorpions (order Amblypygi), and micro whip scorpions (or vinegarroons (vinegarroon); order Uropygi) are widespread within the tropical and subtropical areas of the world, only occasionally being encountered in northern areas. Of more sporadic distribution but more common in tropical areas are the sunspiders, the schizomids (order Schizomida), and the ricinuleids (order Ricinulei). In northern areas mature spiders and daddy longlegs are particularly conspicuous during early autumn, though they are abundant throughout the year. Most arachnids, however, are seldom observed, for they inhabit leaf mold and litter or soil. Most abundant of the arachnids are the ticks and mites, found in soil, in fresh and marine waters, and as parasites (parasitism) of animals, including humans.

      The numbers and predaceous habits of arachnids make them important to humans. Free-living mites play an important role in the conversion of leaf mold to humus. Many mites are parasitic, and many ticks are intermediate hosts for organisms that cause serious diseases. Though all spiders possess poison that can be utilized for subduing prey, only a few have a poison sufficiently powerful to affect humans. A bite of the black widow spider (Latrodectus mactans) may result in discomfort or serious illness, whereas that of the brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa) may result in a severe local reaction, including tissue death. The sting of some scorpions may cause a severe reaction and even death.

Natural history

Reproduction and life cycle

      In most cases the male does not transfer spermatozoa directly to the female but rather initiates courtship rituals in which the female is induced to accept the gelatinous sperm capsule (spermatophore). During mating the sperm are transferred to a sac (spermatheca) within the female reproductive system. The eggs are fertilized as they are laid. Mating in sunspiders is more active, occurring at dusk or during the night. During courting the male seizes the female, lays her on her side, massages her undersurface, opens her genital orifice, and forces a mass of sperm into her spermatheca. Reproductive behaviour in mites is highly variable; sperm usually are produced in a spermatophore and transferred to the female either by the chelicerae or, in ricinuleids, by the third pair of legs of the male.

      The daddy longlegs appear to be the only arachnids in which sperm transfer is direct. There is little or no courtship among the members of this class. Instead, mating occurs whenever a male and female encounter one another. The male has a chitinized penis that is inserted into the genital opening of the female as the partners face one another.

      Many arachnids simply deposit their eggs in the soil or in a protected site, and no further care is given to them; others, particularly some tropical species, guard the eggs by remaining with them during the period of development. Some spiders place their eggs in cocoons. The eggs of some tailless whip scorpions, schizomids, whip scorpions, and false scorpions are attached beneath the abdomen.

      Among scorpions the fertilized eggs develop inside the mother, and the young are born alive. In scorpions whose eggs contain much yolk, the eggs develop within the oviduct; in those with little yolk, the eggs remain in place, and each embryo lies in a diverticulum (hollow outpouching) with a tubular extension through which nutrient fluids pass from the wall of the maternal intestine. When the young are sufficiently developed, they are expelled and carried about on the mother's back until after the first molt. False scorpions carry their eggs in a brood sac attached to the genitalia. The embryos develop and grow within this brood sac and are nourished by the female.

      Details of early development are not known for all forms, but that of egg-laying spiders is considered typical. The two major divisions of the body (the cephalothorax and the abdomen) appear at an early stage, and the appendages first appear as knobs. In many arachnids the organism is wrapped around the yolk, a situation altered by a process termed inversion or reversion, after which hatching usually occurs.

      Growth occurs by molting, or ecdysis. In many arachnids the first molt occurs while the animal is still within the egg. The newly hatched arachnid is small, and the exoskeleton is less sclerotized (hardened) than that of the adult. With the exception of the mites and ticks and the ricinuleids, which have three pairs of legs when hatched, the hatchlings have four pairs of legs. The number of molts required for attaining maturity varies considerably, especially among the larger species, which may molt up to 10 times. Before molting, arachnids seek a protected site. Most spiders, false scorpions, and some mites produce a cocoon to protect themselves at this time.

      Mites differ in both development and growth. In the life cycle of the mite, unlike other arachnids, an egg hatches into a six-legged, or hexapod, larva, which passes through one or several immature (nymphal) stages before becoming an adult. Most mites lay the eggs, though in some species the eggs develop within the body of the female and hatch within or immediately after extrusion (ovoviviparous). Some of the Acari are also able to reproduce from unfertilized eggs ( parthenogenesis). The life cycle of ticks is similar to that of mites.

      The life span of arachnids in temperate areas is usually a single season, with the eggs serving as the overwintering stage. In warm regions some groups (e.g., whip scorpions, tailless whip scorpions, scorpions, sunspiders, and tarantulas (tarantula)) live more than a single year.

Ecology and habitats

      Although most arachnids are inconspicuous free-living terrestrial forms, some ticks and mites are parasitic, a few spiders live on or near water, and some mites are aquatic. Most arachnids lead solitary lives, coming together only briefly for mating. Even though they possess a chitinous (chitin) exoskeleton, most arachnids are subject to drying out (desiccation). Many arachnids, especially small little-known forms (ricinuleids, for example), are found only in well-protected habitats or niches. Thriving in the relatively constant, moisture-containing microclimates provided by soil litter, burrows, or caves, arachnids make up a high proportion of the animals found in dark or otherwise hidden environments. Cave-dwelling species often have special adaptations such as long extremities, light colour, and no eyes. Most arachnids, even those adapted to desert areas, avoid excessive heat by adopting a cryptozoic (hidden) habit and by being active only during the cooler parts of the day.

      A few arachnids (e.g., some scorpions, sunspiders, spiders, and daddy longlegs) are capable of producing rasping sounds (sound production) by rubbing together horny ridges or other special sound-producing structures. Sound may be used in general to warn predators or by males during courtship. Preening is common among arachnids and consists of cleaning the legs and palps by passing them through the chelicerae. In some species protection and escape from predatory enemies is made possible by the ability of a seized limb to detach from the body.

locomotion

      Locomotion among arachnids involves moving the first and third legs of one side and the second and fourth legs of the other side forward nearly simultaneously. Most arachnids are not great travelers. Those that do cover long distances rely upon methods other than walking or running. For example, small spiders about to migrate will scale vertical objects, release a strand of silk, and rely upon the wind to carry them away (ballooning). Pseudoscorpions often rely on an activity termed phoresy, in which they cling to the legs of more-mobile animals, such as flies or daddy longlegs, and are carried about. Mites may use phoresy or gusts of air to carry them to new sites.

Food and feeding (feeding behaviour)

      As predators, most arachnids feed chiefly upon smaller arthropods, although exceptions are found among parasitic ticks and mites and plant-feeding daddy longlegs and mites. Ticks and mites are nourished principally by fluids obtained either from living animal or plant material or from decaying organic matter. Parasitic forms have mouthparts modified for sucking blood or juice. Daddy longlegs appear to be the only arachnids capable of ingesting small particles. More commonly the prey (predation) is torn into small pieces as digestive fluids flow over it, or a hole is made in the body of the prey and digestive fluids injected. Following this external digestion, the liquefied contents of the prey are sucked out. This process is repeated until only the only the exoskeleton of the prey remains.

      While many arachnids actively seek their prey, the more common method is that of lying in wait. Active arachnids, such as the sunspiders, use both tactile and visual responses in prey recognition as they run at random. The American whip scorpion (Mastigoproctus giganteus) hunts mostly at night, moving slowly with pedipalps extended and touching objects with the extended first leg. Daddy longlegs wander over bushes, herbs, and other vegetation in pursuit of prey.

Associations

      Though most arachnids are solitary animals, some spiders live in enormous communal webs housing males, females, and spiderlings. Most of the individuals live in the central part of the web, with the outer part providing snare space for prey shared by all the inhabitants. In some cool and dry areas, daddy longlegs often gather in enormous numbers, probably protecting themselves against extremes of temperature or desiccation. Mimicry is seen among some spiders that are found in ant colonies. These spiders resemble the ants in appearance and habit and are tolerated by the ants, even while they feed upon the ant larvae and pupae.

Form and function

      Though arachnids are easily recognized by the division of the body into two parts, the cephalothorax (prosoma) and abdomen (opisthosoma), and their possession of six pairs of appendages, they are extremely diverse in form. The dorsal region of the cephalothorax has a solid covering called the carapace, and the underside has one or more sternal plates or the coxal (basal) segments of the six pairs of appendages. The segments do not bear appendages. The soft body is protected by an exoskeleton composed of chitin, and the hard plates of each segment are connected by soft membranes. Eyes, if present, are simple, and their number varies with the species. Sexes are always separate, but it is often difficult to distinguish between them. At times, however, either males or females, but especially males, may develop special structures, brighter colour, larger spines, or larger size.

External features

      There are many modifications of the cephalothorax and abdomen. Among the scorpions the abdomen is subdivided into the mesosoma, or preabdomen, and the metasoma, or postabdomen, which is mobile and more slender. Similar arrangements are found among whip scorpions, schizomids, and ricinuleids. Among the daddy longlegs the division between the two parts is indistinct, and among most of the mites and ticks the body is rounded and shows no segmentation. Spiders exhibit the greatest variation in body shape.

      The form and function of the six pairs of appendages are variable. The first pair, the chelicerae, often have claws or fangs. They are used to capture prey (spiders), transport a spermatophore (sunspiders, some mites and ticks), produce sounds (sunspiders, some spiders), cut strands of silk (web-dwelling spiders), and produce silk (pseudoscorpions). The pedipalps, the second pair, likewise are often highly modified. Among the scorpions and pseudoscorpions the pedipalps are large, whereas among the tailless whip scorpions and some daddy longlegs they are elongated and equipped with many heavy spines. Among some arachnids they are prehensile and serve to both capture and hold prey. In male spiders they serve to transfer sperm, and for spiders, scorpions, pseudoscorpions, and tailless whip scorpions they play an important role during courtship displays.

      There are typically four pairs of walking legs, each of which usually has seven segments of variable lengths, with the last segment often bearing claws. The legs serve chiefly for locomotion but may be modified for serving as tactile organs (daddy longlegs), for capturing and immobilizing prey (running spiders), and for producing sound (daddy longlegs, spiders, sunspiders, and scorpions).

Internal features

Support, skeleton, and exoskeleton

      The arachnid exoskeleton is formed of chitin, a nitrogen-containing carbohydrate associated with a protein. This complex results in a tough but pliable external skeleton. The exoskeleton consists of two parts, the thin outer epicuticle, which usually contains a wax and is impermeable to water, and a thicker endocuticle. Membranes, flexible portions of the cuticle, are present wherever there are articulations.

      Growth can occur only by shedding the old exoskeleton, a process termed molting or ecdysis. This process is under hormonal control and involves the secretion of a new cuticle below the old one. Hardening (sclerotization) may be accompanied by pigmentation.

      While the exoskeleton provides both support and protection, arachnids also have a hard internal structure called the endosternite, which anchors muscles.

Tissues and muscles

      The muscles of the cephalothorax are well developed, while those of the abdomen are reduced. The muscles are striated, similar to those of vertebrates. Muscles in the legs have their origin either on the endosternite or on the body wall and extend to the basal segments of the appendages. Muscles within the appendages make possible the movements of the individual segments. Within the abdomen, muscles consist primarily of bundles that connect the various segments. Most of the space between the digestive tract and the body wall, the hemocoel, is filled with hemolymph (blood).

nervous system and sense organs

      The arachnid nervous system is similar to that of other arthropods in that it consists of a brain and a chain of paired ganglia (ganglion), or nerve bundles. The nervous system has been highly modified by ganglionic fusion and migration forward toward the head region. A large ganglion above the esophagus is considered the brain and gives rise to the nerves of the eyes and first pair of appendages (chelicerae). It is joined to a ganglion located below the esophagus. Nerves from this latter ganglion extend to the second pair of appendages (pedipalps) and legs. An unpaired nerve runs along the esophagus and stomach and is connected to the brain by paired nerves.

      There are commonly three types of sense organs: tactile hairs called trichobothria, simple eyes (ocelli), and slit (lyriform) sense organs. Specialized structures, possibly serving as tactile organs or detectors of air movements, include malleoli (racket organs) of sunspiders and comblike appendages (pectines) of scorpions. The number of simple eyes (eye, human) found on the carapace varies. Scorpions, for example, may have as many as five pairs of simple eyes on the sides of the carapace in addition to a median pair, while daddy longlegs have only median eyes, and many cryptic or cave-dwelling species have either reduced eyes or none at all. The most abundant sense organs, tactile hairs, are scattered over the body. The slit sense organs, which appear as slits in the cuticle, may function to detect odours, although those on the legs of daddy longlegs function in the reception of internal stimuli (proprioception). Tarsal organs are small round holes in the upper surface of the last (distal) segment of the leg that may act as chemoreceptors.

Digestion (digestive system, invertebrate) and nutrition

      With the exception of some daddy longlegs and mites, arachnids are carnivorous, relying upon smaller arthropods for their food. Most species partially digest their prey as it is held in the chelicerae. The digestive system is a tube that begins with the mouth, situated below the chelicerae, and leads into the pharynx, then into the esophagus, and from there into the sucking stomach, which has heavy muscles and serves to pump the partially digested food into the midgut, where special enzymes digest the food. The absorptive surface of the midgut is increased by a series of blind sacs (gastric caecae). Fecal material accumulates in the hindgut and is voided through the anus.

Excretion

      Two main types of excretory organs occur in arachnids: coxal glands (coxal gland) and Malpighian tubules (malpighian tubule). The coxal glands consist of three parts: a large excretory sac lying opposite the coxal segment of the first pair of legs, a long coiled tubule, and a short exit tube that opens to the exterior through orifices behind the first and third coxal leg segments. The nitrogen-containing waste material usually is the organic compound guanine.

Respiration

      Two types of respiratory organs are found among arachnids: book lungs and tracheae (trachea). Book lungs are found in hardened pockets generally located on the underside of the abdomen. Diffusion of gases occurs between the hemolymph circulating within thin leaflike structures (lamellae) stacked like pages in a book within the pocket and the air in spaces between these thin structures. The tracheal system consists of a number of tubes that open to the exterior by paired respiratory pores (spiracles) and is similar to that of insects. Diffusion of gases occurs within small fluid-filled tubes that ramify over the internal organs. Scorpions, tailless whip scorpions, and whip scorpions rely upon book lungs. Pseudoscorpions, sunspiders, ricinuleids, daddy longlegs, and mites and ticks have only tracheae. Most spiders have both, and small micro whip scorpions and some extremely small mites have only cutaneous respiration.

Circulatory system

      The circulatory system of the arachnids is an open system with hemolymph circulating in tissue sinuses. Special venous channels conduct hemolymph from the tissues to the heart, from which it is pumped through a series of blood vessels back to the sinuses. The respiratory pigment usually is hemocyanin and is in solution in the hemolymph. Although cells are present in the hemolymph, they do not carry oxygen.

Reproductive system (reproductive system, animal)

      There is considerable variation in the number and appearance of both ovaries and testes. In general, the ovaries are associated with oviducts, and the testes have vasa deferentia. The genital orifice of both sexes is on the undersurface of the second abdominal segment, although in some mites it may be dorsal. Sperm are usually transferred to a special structure of the female, called the spermatheca.

Glands and toxins

      The glands of arachnids are usually peculiar to individual orders. In spiders, silk is stored as a viscous liquid in the silk glands, which are located within the abdomen. The number of spinnerets, through which the glandular material is extruded, is variable. The viscous liquid, a protein, passes through minute tubes at the tips of the spinnerets and changes from liquid to solid thread. A structural rearrangement of the protein molecules occurs as the silk is drawn from a silk droplet. The silk of the pseudoscorpions is produced by a spinneret located on a movable projection of the chelicerae. The few mites that produce silk have glands in the area of the mouth.

      Toxic (poison) substances are secreted by special glands found in the chelicerae of spiders, in the pedipalps of false scorpions, and in the poison glands of scorpions. These substances and their effects differ even within species of the same order. The strongly alkaline poison of spiders is much less poisonous to mammals than to arthropods. Bites of spiders of the genera Loxosceles (brown recluse) and Latrodectus ( black widow) may cause human discomfort, while those of the widows may cause serious illness. The venom of most scorpions, sufficiently toxic to kill most invertebrates, usually is not dangerous to humans. However, the venoms of some scorpion genera (Androctonus and Buthus of Africa, various species of Centruroides of Mexico, Arizona, and New Mexico) are highly toxic nerve poisons. The toxicity of the venom of pseudoscorpions is not known. The paired glands located near the anus of whip scorpions secrete specific acids ( formic acid and acetic acid) that serve as irritants and apparently are used for defense. The openings of paired odoriferous glands are found on the cephalothorax of daddy longlegs; when irritated, these animals secrete a fluid containing cyanic acid that probably serves to repel predators.

evolution and paleontology

      A major characteristic of arachnid evolution is that segments were fused or lost. The five posterior segments of the scorpions were retained as a tail. Among the spiders, the abdomen is completely fused in adults. Among the mites and ticks, abdominal segmentation was lost, and the body shows no external segmentation. In general, scorpions have the largest number of primitive arachnid features, and spiders and mites are the most highly evolved.

      While arachnid fossils are abundant, it is extremely difficult to trace the evolution of individual groups. The earliest forms recognizable as arachnids include a scorpion that dates from the Silurian Period (about 443 to 417 million years ago) and an acarid from the Devonian Period (417 to 354 million years ago). Spiders with segmented abdomens and presumably four pairs of spinnerets are known to have existed 345 million years ago during the early Carboniferous Period. Micro whip scorpions have been described only as 190-million-year-old fossils from the Jurassic Period in Europe, and the schizomids are known from about 7 million years ago, during the late Cenozoic Era, in Arizona. The Mesozoic Era (about 248 to 65 million years ago) is poor in arachnid fossils, but the Cenozoic Era (from about 65 million years ago to the present) is rich in them. The stem group of the chelicerates is believed to be among the members of the trilobite-like Olenellinae. These date from the Cambrian Period (543 to 490 million years ago). During Paleozoic (Paleozoic Era) times the eurypterids, large aquatic animals resembling modern scorpions, were abundant, and both groups can be traced to a common ancestor. The transition to land habitats probably started in moist environments, such as under leaf-litter-like material. Many changes in anatomy and reproductive behaviour had to occur before the arthropods were successful in their transfer to terrestrial life.

Classification

Distinguishing taxonomic features

      In classifying arachnids, taxonomists rely mostly upon external structures, including such features as general body form, the degree of visible external segmentation, structural modifications of the prosoma and opisthosoma, characteristics of appendages, and special structures involved in sperm transfer. Internal anatomical features, developmental traits, and serological characteristics are used to a limited extent. However, as more information becomes available at the molecular level, traits such as these could play a more important role in arachnid classification.

Annotated classification

Class Arachnida (arachnids)

 Approximately 90,000 species classified in 13 orders, found nearly worldwide. Chelicerate arthropods with adult body composed of 18 somites organized into 2 major structures, the prosoma, or cephalothorax (6 somites), and posterior opisthosoma, or abdomen (12 somites); prosoma has 6 pairs of appendages, 4 pairs used for walking, last 2 pairs lost in some mites; instinctive (instinct) behaviour highly developed.

      Order Araneida (spider) or Araneae (spiders (spider))

 38,000 species found nearly worldwide. Size 0.05–9.0 cm; chelicerae 2-jointed, with ducts for poison glands; abdomen nonsegmented, bearing spinnerets for silk production.

      Order Opiliones or Phalangida ( daddy longlegs or harvestmen)

 7,000 species found nearly worldwide. Size 1–22 mm; some regions of the abdomen fused with carapace; single pair of eyes usually on a central prominence.

      Order Pseudoscorpiones or Pseudoscorpionida (false scorpions (false scorpion) or book scorpions)

 2,000 species found nearly worldwide. Size 1–7.5 mm; abdomen often subdivided dorsally; movable projection on the abdomen with spinneret.

      Order Scorpiones (scorpion) or Scorpionida (scorpions (scorpion))

 1,400 species described, widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. Size 1.4–21 cm; taillike portion ending in a stinger; 1st pair of appendages (chelicerae) pincerlike and 3-jointed; ovoviviparous rather than egg-laying.

      Order Solpugida or Solifugae (sunspiders (sunspider) or wind scorpions (sunspider))

 900 species widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. Size 10–50 mm; abdomen 10 or 11 segments.

      Order Schizomida (schizomids)

 110 primarily tropical species. Size 2–15 mm; 2-segmented chelicerae.

      Order Uropygi (whip scorpion) (whip scorpions (whip scorpion) or vinegarroons (vinegarroon))

 105 tropical and subtropical species all belonging to 1 family (Thelyphonidae). Size to 13 cm; long whiplike “tail” (telson); fossils nearly identical with living forms.

      Order Amblypygi (tailless whip scorpion) (tailless whip scorpions (tailless whip scorpion))

 70 species widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. Size 0.8–4.5 cm; cephalothorax broader than long; 8 eyes; pedipalps very long and strong.

      Order Palpigradi (micro whip scorpions)

 70 mainly tropical species. Size 0.8–2.6 mm; carapace subdivided into 3 parts; eyes absent; 3-jointed leglike pedipalps; long, thin, and multisegmented “tail” (telson); no book lungs or tracheae.

      Order Ricinulei (ricinuleids)

 30 primarily tropical species. Size 8–10 mm; abdomen of 9 segments, last 3 forming taillike pygidium; 6-legged larval form.

      Subclass Acari (acarid), Acarina, or Acarida (mites (mite) and ticks (tick))

 Approximately 41,000 species found nearly worldwide. Size from 0.008 to 3 cm in some fully engorged ticks; body segments fused; mouthparts adapted to piercing, sucking, biting, grating, or sawing; many parasitic and economically important.

      Order Acariformes (mites)

 30,000 species. Eyes present or absent; habitats from aquatic to terrestrial; predatory to parasitic.

      Order Parasitiformes (mites and ticks (tick))

 11,000 species. Body usually hardened; 1st pair of legs have sensory organs.

      Order Opilioacariformes or Opilioacarida

 20 species found in North America and parts of the Mediterranean region, all of 1 family. Body of 12 segments, divided into hairy anterior portion with 2 or 3 pairs of eyes.

Marie Louise Goodnight Joseph Culin

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