systems engineering

☆ systems engineering

n.

a branch of engineering using esp. information theory, computer science, and facts from systems-analysis studies to design integrated operational systems for specific complexes

systems engineer

n.

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Technique of using knowledge from various branches of engineering and science to introduce technological innovations into the planning and development stages of a system.

Systems engineering was first applied to the organization of commercial telephone systems in the 1920s and '30s. Many systems-engineering techniques were developed during World War II in an effort to deploy military equipment more efficiently. Postwar growth in the field was spurred by advances in electronic systems and by the development of computers and information theory. Systems engineering usually involves incorporating new technology into complex, man-made systems, in which a change in one part affects many others. One tool used by systems engineers is the flowchart, which shows the system in graphic form, with geometric figures representing various subsystems and arrows representing their interactions. Other tools include mathematical models, probability theory, statistical analysis, and computer simulations.

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Introduction

      technique of using knowledge from various branches of engineering and science to introduce technological innovations into the planning and development stages of a system.

      Systems engineering is not so much a branch of engineering as it is a technique for applying knowledge from other branches of engineering and disciplines of science in effective combination to solve a multifaceted engineering problem. It is related to operations research but differs from it in that it is more a planning and design function, frequently involving technical innovation. Probably the most important aspect of systems engineering is its application to the development of new technological possibilities with the specific objective of putting them to use as rapidly as economic and technical considerations permit. In this sense it may be seen as the midwife of technological development.

      The word “systems” is frequently used also in other combinations, especially when elements of technological advance are not so important. Systems analysis is an example. Systems theory, or sometimes systems science, is frequently applied to the analysis of physical dynamic systems. An example would be a complex electrical network with one or more feedback loops, in which the effects of a process return to cause changes in the source of the process.

      In the development of the various engineering disciplines in the 19th and 20th centuries, considerable overlap was inevitable among the different fields; for example, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering were both concerned with heat transfer and fluid flow. Further proliferation of specializations, as in the many branches of electrical and electronic engineering, such as communications theory, cybernetics, and computer theory, led to further overlapping. Systems engineering may be seen as a logical last step in the process. Systems engineers frequently have an electronics or communications background and make extensive use of computers and communications technology. Yet systems engineering is not to be confused with these other fields. Fundamentally a point of view or a method of attack, it should not be identified with any particular substantive area. In its nature and in the nature of the problems it attacks, it is interdisciplinary, a procedure for putting separate techniques and bodies of knowledge together to achieve a prescribed goal in an effective manner.

      In general, a systems engineering approach is likely to differ from a conventional design approach by exhibiting increased generality in its basic logical framework and increased concern with the fundamental objectives to be achieved. Thus, at each stage the systems engineer is likely to ask both why and how, rather than merely how.

      In addition to systems engineering, it is important to define systems themselves. The systems with which a systems engineer is concerned are first of all man-made. Second, they are large and complex; their component parts interact so extensively that a change in one part is likely to affect many others. Unless there is such interaction, there is little for the systems engineer to do, at least at the systems level; he can turn immediately to the components themselves. Another important characteristic of systems is that their inputs are normally stochastic; that is, the inputs are essentially random functions of time, although they may exhibit statistical regularities. Thus, one cannot expect to foresee exactly what the system will be exposed to in actual operation, and its performance must be evaluated as a statistical average of the responses to a range of possible inputs. A calculation based on a single precisely defined input function will not do.

      Systems may also vary depending on the amount of human judgment that enters into their operation. There are, of course, systems such as electrical circuits, automated production equipment, or robots that may operate in a completely determinate fashion. At the other extreme, there are management and control systems, for both business and military purposes, in which machines in a sense do most of the work but with human supervision and decision making at critical points. Clearly these mixed human-machine systems offer the greatest variety both of possibilities and problems for the systems engineer. Aspects of such systems are treated in the article human-factors engineering.

The development of systems engineering

Mathematical modeling (mathematical model)

      The systems approach stems from a number of sources. In a broad sense it can be regarded as simple extension of standard scientific methodology. It is a common procedure in science (and elsewhere) to list all the factors that might affect a given situation and select from the complete list those that appear critical. Mathematical modeling, perhaps the most basic tool in systems engineering, is a technique encountered in any branch of science that has become sufficiently quantitative. Thus, in this broad sense, the systems approach is simply the inheritor of a tradition that is generations, if not centuries, old.

      In looking for more recent and more specific sources for the systems approach, on the other hand, there are two in particular that stand out. First is the general field of communications, particularly commercial telephony, where systems engineering first appeared as an explicit discipline in its own right. Traces of the systems approach are to be found in telephone engineering at least as far back as the beginning years of the century, and systems ideas were fairly common in telephony by the 1920s and '30s. When Bell (Bell Laboratories) Telephone Laboratories, the research arm of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company, was officially incorporated in 1925, its two principal engineering divisions were called respectively Apparatus Development and Systems Development. A complete formal doctrine of the role of systems engineering, however, first emerged in the years after World War II as part of an effort to redefine the policy and structure of the research and development. This doctrine set the engineering effort on a level of logical parity with the research and development efforts and made it of almost comparable actual size, at least with research. The systems engineer had a multitude of functions, with special emphasis on effective utilization of scientific and technical advances in planning new communications systems. This particular set of ideas, of course, reflected the special needs of telephony. Nevertheless, as an example and a point of departure, it had a wide effect. It seems to be one of the reasons why so esoteric a subject as systems engineering advanced as rapidly as it did. (For a detailed discussion of the research and development aspects of systems engineering, see the article research and development.)

Operations research and systems engineering

      A second major source for systems engineering is operations research, which originated in a recognizable form in Britain during World War II and initially was concerned with the best employment of military equipment. Typical examples included determining the best employment of a given number of bombers, the best way of arranging convoys against submarine attack, and the best way of using interceptors against a bombing attack. Operations research was effective in such cases and has flourished ever since in both civilian and military contexts.

      There exists a clear distinction between operations research and systems engineering. Because operations research is concerned with the best employment of existing equipment, technological uncertainties do not arise. Systems engineering, on the other hand, is normally concerned with the planning of new equipment, and such uncertainties may be important. In practice, nevertheless, systems engineering and operations research have a good deal in common. In particular, they share many of the same analytic techniques. This results in large part from the fact that a systems engineer is likely to evaluate the effectiveness of a tentative design by the same methods an operations research specialist would use with actual hardware.

      Another reason for overlap is the fact that the distinction between new and existing equipment is not quite clear-cut. Newness in equipment is a relative matter. If the new equipment is sufficiently well based on existing design techniques and seems to involve few enough technical uncertainties, the issue becomes unimportant. The question is one of degree and, to an extent, of judgment.

      Most of the present character of systems engineering derives historically from the early 1950s. There had been some noteworthy events in the years just after World War II, including, for example, the introduction of linear programming in 1947 and the founding of various organizations for continued development of the field in the late 1940s. On the whole, however, this was a period of consolidation of earlier advances. Thus, in the communications field the principal systems were some long-distance transmission systems that had been initiated before the war and had been interrupted by war activities.

      In the 1950s the pace of growth accelerated appreciably. The first general textbook on systems engineering appeared in 1957 and was followed by a number of other works that treated both industrial and military applications. These publications proved sufficient to establish systems engineering as an accepted academic discipline, and courses in it are now taught in many universities throughout the developed countries of the world. Professional societies and journals exist in France, India, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

Communications and electronics

      The development of systems engineering after 1950 stemmed, in large part, from the impact of great advances in adjacent fields, notably communications and electronics. An automatic control system is a good example. A control system has the prime characteristic that the components interact extensively and that the system as a whole has certain properties—e.g., stability—that cannot be said to adhere to any individual component. Thus control systems furnished convenient textbook examples for systems engineering.

      The development of information theory as a basic starting point for communications engineering, in the years just after World War II, was also influential in shaping the evolution of systems engineering. The various subsystems in many complete systems were found to be held together by what were, in effect, communication channels. Thus ideas of information transfer from one part of the system to another proved useful in understanding the operation of the structure as a whole.

Computers (computer) and systems engineering

      Systems engineering also profited from the advent of computers and the subsequent development of powerful, high-level programming languages, which affected the field in two principal ways. First, they provided new tools for analyzing complex systems by means of extensive calculations or direct simulation. In the second place, they could be used to digest large amounts of data or as actual constituents of complex systems, especially those concerned largely with information transmission. This opened up the possibility of processing information as well as simply transmitting it in such systems (see also information processing).

      The impact of military weapons problems on systems engineering began soon after World War II. A landmark date was 1945, when the development of Nike (Nike missile) Ajax, a U.S. air defense missile system, was initiated.

      In 1945 available rocket propulsion seemed barely sufficient to give the missile a satisfactory tactical range. It was discovered that achievable range depended on several parameters, such as the weight and size of the warhead, fineness of the missile's aerodynamic design, degree of maneuverability provided by the control system, and shape of the trajectory and average speed along it. Thus an effective systems engineering effort was mounted in which a variety of combinations of the missile's properties were explored, with the objective of achieving the best balance between range and other tactical characteristics.

      Control and feedback questions were also important aspects of the overall systems problem. The whole system was in fact a gigantic feedback loop because the missile was controlled by orders sent it from a ground computer, and the computer input included information on what the tracking radar observed the missile to be doing. Thus there was a closed feedback loop from missile to computer and back to the missile again. There were also such subsidiary feedback loops as that of the autopilot controlling the attitude of the missile, and the dynamic response of the system was further affected by the need to process the radar signals to remove radar “jitter.” The analysis of such elaborate dynamical systems involving interlaced feedback paths has become an important special part of the general systems area.

      In the 1950s and 1960s systems engineering also grew in other directions, largely as a result of weapons systems projects associated with the Cold War. Thus the Ajax study was concerned with the dynamics of a single isolated missile. On the other hand, the defense systems that grew up in the 1950s involved the coordinated operation of a large number of missiles, guns, interceptors, and radar installations scattered over a considerable area. These were all held together by a large digital computer, which thus became the central element of the system. The SAGE (semiautomatic ground environment) system in the United States is a good example.

      During the same years the systems approach also became increasingly identified with management functions. Thus the phrase “systems engineering and technical direction” came into use to describe the role of a systems engineer responsible for both the initial planning of a project and its subsequent management. So-called planning, programming, and budgeting (PPB) techniques were developed to provide similar combinations of systems engineering and financial management.

      In nonmilitary fields systems engineering has developed along similar though more modest lines. Early applications were likely to stress feedback control systems in large-scale automated production facilities, such as steel-rolling mills and petroleum refineries. Later applications stressed computer-based management information and control systems somewhat like those that had earlier been developed for air defense. In more recent years the systems approach has occasionally been applied to much larger civilian enterprises, such as the planning of new cities.

Systems engineering techniques, tools, and procedures

      If a system is both large and complex in the sense in which these terms have been defined, it may be difficult to find out how it works. A large part of the content of systems engineering consists of techniques for the investigation of such relatively complex situations.

Modeling and optimization

      Perhaps the most fundamental technique is the flow diagram, or flowchart, a graphical display composed of boxes representing individual components or subsystems of the complete system, plus arrows from box to box to show how the subsystems interact. Though such a representation is very useful in an initial study, it is, of course, essentially qualitative. A more effective approach in the long run is construction of a so-called mathematical model, which consists of a set of equations, or sometimes simply of tables and curves, describing the interactions within the system in quantitative terms. It is not necessary for the mathematical model to be exact, as long as it serves its purpose. It frequently consists of piecewise linear approximations to basically nonlinear situations (i.e., a series of short straight lines that roughly approximate a curve). After the model has been constructed and checked, a number of mathematical techniques can be employed (including straightforward enumeration and computing) to find out what it says about the actual operation of the system. Often these calculations will have a probabilistic or statistical flavour.

      When the components or subsystems interact significantly, it may be possible to achieve essentially the same final level of performance in many different ways. Limited performance by one subsystem may be offset by superior performance somewhere else. These optimization studies, called trade-offs, are important in suggesting how to achieve a given result in the most economical manner. They are equally valuable in suggesting whether or not the proposed result is in fact a reasonable goal to aim for. It may be found, for example, that a modest reduction in performance will permit radical savings in overall cost or, conversely, that the postulated equipment is capable of much better performance than is asked of it, at only nominally greater expense. (It may also turn out that the equipment can supply useful functions not originally contemplated. Computing systems, for example, can usually perform extra chores of record keeping at little increased cost.) For all of these reasons, studies of such variables are an important part of systems engineering, both in the early exploratory phases of a project and in the final design.

Identifying objectives

      The formulation of suitable objectives for the final system is so important a part of the systems engineering process that it deserves special attention. It is, of course, always possible to state the general objectives of a system in vague or perfectionist terms. A sufficiently clear, precise, and comprehensive statement to serve as a basis for engineering studies, however, is another matter. Unless the situation has been well explored in the past, the real choices are not likely to be obvious when the work begins. Thus, the first task of the systems engineer is to develop as clear a formulation of objectives as possible. This usually involves computations and consultation with others interested in the system. Because the final statement must reflect value judgments as well as purely technical considerations, the systems engineer does not try to do this thinking alone but attempts to serve as a working focus and catalyst. Although issues of this sort naturally present themselves with particular force near the beginning of a systems study, they may recur in subsequent steps. The question of objectives is never really out of the systems engineer's mind.

      The principal reason why a satisfactory statement of objectives may present such a problem is simply that most systems have multiple objectives, often in conflict with one another. In the design of transport aircraft, for example, there are a multitude of desirable characteristics, such as range, speed, payload, and safety, to be maximized, as well as undesirable characteristics, such as noise generation and air pollution, to be minimized. Because the same design cannot do the best job in all of these directions, a compromise achieving the most desirable overall performance is required. The most attractive compromise, which may require both study and ingenuity, is not likely to be found at all until some hard thinking has been done about what characteristics are really needed.

      Especially difficult problems in defining objectives may arise when an existing technology is transplanted to some new disciplinary area. An example is the application of electronics such as computer techniques to medicine and education. It seldom happens in such cases that the best system is based on a simple one-for-one substitution, such as direct replacement of a classroom teacher by electronic hardware and computer-assisted instruction materials. It is much more likely that the most effective plan will turn out to be a rather complicated mixture of the old and the new. This conclusion, however, is likely to raise basic issues about the actual objectives of the new system, issues made no simpler by the interdisciplinary nature of the situation.

A design example

      The design of the commercial transport plane mentioned above is an example of a systems engineering problem. In such a design the aerodynamic lift, the drag of fuselage and wings, the control apparatus, the propulsion system, and such auxiliary hardware as the landing gear all interact substantially. One element cannot be disturbed without affecting the others; all elements and aspects of the total system, and the interactions among them, must be considered. Thus, if designers make the fuselage fatter and the wings smaller in an effort to carry more payload at the same or higher speeds, a new control system might be needed because of the changes produced in the overall mechanical and aerodynamic characteristics of the vehicle. Stronger and heavier landing gear might be needed to withstand higher landing speeds. Almost surely, the new design would call for larger engines and fuel tanks to compensate for greater aerodynamic drag. Thus the designers would have lost ground in some respects and gained in others. The new plane might be more useful for short flights when not much fuel must be carried but less useful for long ones. Obviously, the system objective—the kind of airplane actually wanted—must control the direction of any such study.

      The study becomes more interesting if a possible advance in basic technology is considered, such as an improvement in propulsion or aerodynamics, and it is desired to determine how it might best be applied in a new airplane design. The central systems engineering question then would probably encompass the relation between the available new plane characteristics and the needs of the existing air transportation system. Clearly, such an investigation can be made only by going to one of the upper levels in the systems hierarchy.

      Finally, to operate the new airplane successfully, a whole series of supporting functions may be required, including routine checkout, maintenance, and spare parts supply, in addition to functions directly involved in the plane's flight. Though, under normal circumstances, these might readily be handled by the existing operating staff, it is part of the user orientation of the systems approach that the systems engineer is expected to anticipate any new requirements and make sure they are properly planned for.

      To make adequate comparisons between competing objectives, a logical frame of reference, broad enough to include both, is needed. Thus, the systems engineer may study many situations in the framework of more than one system or a whole hierarchy of systems of steadily increasing generality. In the example of an airplane, the airplane itself is a possible system, as are the group of planes owned by one airline, the total number of airplanes in a particular country, and that nation's transportation facilities. Though the simplest system—the airplane itself—is a satisfactory reference for specific design problems, a more general framework may be needed to approach broader problems. Thus the individual airplane designer may seek to ameliorate air-traffic congestion by improving airplane takeoff and landing characteristics, permitting better utilization of existing airports. The airlines in turn may suggest construction of more and better airports. From the point of view of the transportation system as a whole, the best step might be to invest more money in high-speed rail facilities to carry part of the air-traffic load. In systems engineering the error of studying the problem within too narrow a framework is called the error of suboptimization.

User orientation

      The stress on systems objectives has one further consequence worth mentioning; i.e., that systems engineering is likely to be strongly user-oriented. This results naturally enough from the fact that systems objectives usually relate to overall performance, which is what the final user is interested in. The identity of technical interest between the systems engineer and the final user is usually marked; systems engineering is likely to give special consideration to such qualities as reliability, ease of maintenance, and convenience in operation. Moreover, the final step of a systems engineering project is typically an evaluation that attempts to find out how well the system works in the hands of the user.

Tools

      The most obvious aspect of systems engineering tools is their great diversity. A leading text in the field states that “there is virtually no scientific discipline which may not be used in the design of some large-scale system” and singles out probability, mathematical statistics, computing, system logic, queuing theory, game theory, linear programming, cybernetics, group dynamics, simulation, information theory, servomechanism theory, and human engineering. To this list might also be added decision theory, nonlinear programming, some elements of econometrics, and communications theory as related to random processes.

      In spite of this diversity, many of the tools of systems theory can be grouped under a few major headings. The analytic problems associated with optimization, for example, are a recurrent theme. Probability and statistics are also major areas that carry with them numerous more specialized topics, such as queuing theory and much of communications theory. Finally, computing is a major field for the systems engineer. If all else fails, direct calculation or simulation may produce the desired results.

      These fields are all essentially mathematical in nature. The systems engineer may need knowledge and skills of other sorts as well. The mathematical model and associated objective functions that conventionally begin a systems analysis, for example, are only satisfactory to the extent that they adequately represent the real physical situation. The adequacy of a mathematical model in this sense, however, is a matter of physical or engineering rather than mathematical judgment. In some circumstances the systems engineer may also need to know something about experimental procedures in general and, in particular, about ways of maximizing the amount of information from a given testing program. This is particularly likely to happen in urgent high-risk projects, like space exploration or nuclear power generation, in which intermediate testing failures are bound to occur, and the systems engineer, as part of his overall responsibility, must decide what to do next. Even in simpler cases, in which the project should close in a final test and evaluation phase, the systems engineer is responsible for ensuring that this work is adequately carried out. A closely related question is the monitoring of testing procedures for routine quality control purposes. This also is logically part of the systems engineer's duties, which reflect a basic user orientation. When reliability is very important, as in space programs, it may be a major responsibility.

      When the systems engineer's job is defined as including significant management responsibility, some acquaintance with modern management techniques is an obvious requirement. The techniques of particular importance are those that bear most directly on cost figuring and scheduling technological developments.

      Finally, systems engineering is used in new situations that may involve the application of new discoveries in science or technology to existing technical areas or the application of known science or technology in new contexts. In either case the systems engineer obviously needs considerable substantive knowledge of the fields involved in order to make reliable plans.

      It is apparent that no single person is likely to meet all of these specialized qualifications. Thus, systems engineering on any significant scale almost invariably involves a team approach.

Applications of systems engineering

      Many useful systems are, in effect, modifications of previous designs. The proportions of the subsystems may be changed, but no substantial function has been added or left out. Chemical-processing plants and information systems, for example, are likely to be of this sort. The basic task of the systems engineer in such a situation is relatively straightforward; it is essentially a matter of reoptimizing the existing design to meet the new conditions.

      In other circumstances, however, the basic systems concept represents a more radical break with the past. The new concept may involve the introduction of new functions or the realization of old functions in new ways. On the other hand, it may merely involve a radical change in system parameters (constants).

The development of radically new systems

      Radically new systems concepts are like inventions in ordinary engineering. Usually offering a substantial advance in overall performance, more than would be expected from a modest reproportioning of a known system, these clearly deserve special attention. On the other hand, in many cases it is impossible to predict accurately in advance of the development just what performance may be achievable in one or more of the critical elements of the new system. This leaves the systems engineer with a special problem in planning, which is usually addressed by establishing a minimum acceptable level of performance for the critical elements, with the rest of the system so arranged that whatever is realized beyond this level will appear as growth potential in the overall capabilities of the system. Thus definitive optimization studies may be postponed until the system is better understood.

      The Nike Ajax missile system provides an example of the application of a radically new systems concept. The simple realization that the technology was available to provide a missile that could outmaneuver an enemy bomber taking evasive action was perhaps the systems invention in this case. (Guided missiles had been thought of before, but only for use against targets simpler than a rapidly maneuvering airplane.) In a more limited sense, however, the key idea in the overall systems concept was probably the decision to use a command-guidance system, as opposed, for example, to a homing system.

      In the command system, both the radars used for tracking the aircraft and the intercepting missile and the computer that calculates how the missile should change course are on the ground. Such a system requires a minimum of control apparatus in the missile. It also allows the missile to follow computer-determined paths that are aerodynamically favourable. This was an especially important consideration at the time in maximizing the range achievable with available propulsion systems. It also allows, through the computer, maximum flexibility in dealing with evasive action by the target. On the other hand, adequate accuracy from the ground-tracking system becomes increasingly difficult in a command system as the range is increased, whereas a homing system is not so limited. Thus the adoption of the command system implied a belief that the ground radars would be accurate enough to provide satisfactory interception even at the limits of the expected field of fire. As the development turned out, tracking accuracies were more than adequate for the purpose, and the surplus provided growth potential toward still longer ranges and higher probabilities of interception. (In other circumstances, of course, a different choice might have been better.)

Long-term systems development

      Thus far the description of systems engineering may seem to suggest that systems engineering efforts are essentially episodic. In many situations, however, there are important elements of continuity in what the systems engineer actually does. He is likely, in fact, to work on a series of similar problems as part of a long-term effort. In the case of telephone engineering, systems engineering groups have been set up formally as permanent parts of the overall organizational structure, each group having cognizance over some wide area of telephone technology. Thus continuity in this case may extend over many years.

      Telephone engineering makes a particularly good example of this because of the importance of long-range forecasting for the telephone plant. One of the important responsibilities of the systems engineer in this field, for example, involves establishment of performance standards for new items in the plant. In most fields the systems engineer's role in this respect is comparatively modest because performance standards represent value judgments established by others. In telephony the systems aspects are more conspicuous because, at any given instant, the plant is a composite of new and old items, designed at different times in different ways to meet a variety of assumed operating conditions. The pieces must all work together. Any new apparatus or system must be compatible with what already exists. In addition, however, if an orderly evolution of the plant is to continue, the new apparatus must also be suited to the traffic and service needs of the future. Thus the systems engineer's responsibility, to provide a sort of long-term doctrine of performance standards, becomes very important.

      Somewhat the same considerations affect the economics of new telephone systems. Here again a carefully developed forecast is essential. On the one hand, there are usually substantial economies of scale in communication apparatus. Thus it pays to take big steps in installing new equipment. On the other hand, capital charges on under-utilized equipment are likely to be excessive. Because the successive steps of design, production, and installation of a complicated system may take years, and because meanwhile both technology and service demands may change materially, the situation may increase in complexity, and the systems engineers may find that the choice of the most inviting system involves a calculated risk. They are responsible for judging the degree to which new possibilities should be exploited at any time. The principal result of assigning the telephone systems engineers a continuing organizational position and function is to put them into much more intimate contact with the technical frontier in communications. Their prime responsibility becomes that of monitoring the technical frontier to see what can be put to use in new operating systems.

      Major technical advances may, of course, require many years between the original discovery or conception and the time when a practical design becomes feasible. The systems engineers keep in touch with the design and research work as it progresses throughout this interim period. They can exercise a valuable if indirect influence on the investigation simply by noticing weaknesses and errors that need correction for a project to be successful. It frequently happens that an extensive program of systematic measurements is called for before a new systems conception can be implemented, even when the basic conception is well established.

      In many cases, technology suggests two or more competitive approaches to the same problem. If a continuing systems engineering organization exists, there is generally no need to make a premature choice between them. Rather, both lines can be followed until it is clear that one is superior or, perhaps, that each has its particular niche in the marketplace. In telephony, for example, this was the case in the long-continued rivalry between microwave transmission systems and those based on transmissions by a coaxial cable.

Applications to government and social problems

      Thus far, systems engineering has been dealt with in relation to two principal fields of application. One field is industry, in which the prospects of a further expansion of systems engineering appear bright. Existing applications furnish many good models, and it seems likely that such extensions can take place without raising many unusual problems. The other major field of application has been in military and space systems, and this may have been the principal force in shaping the systems engineering field. The possibility of new applications of systems ideas in nonmilitary areas of government also has come under consideration in the realm of worldwide basic social and economic problems. On the other hand, systems engineering as practiced in other contexts does not automatically transfer easily to this new environment. General interest in the subject dates, however, only from the late 1960s, and the field is incompletely explored.

      In one experiment in the conversion of military systems engineering techniques, a U.S. state government contracted with four large aerospace companies (each of which had a substantial capability in systems engineering) to study the following four topics: (1) a statewide information-handling system, including a plan for implementation, (2) a program for the prevention and control of crime and delinquency, (3) a waste-management problem, and (4) a systems approach to basic transportation problems.

      None of the four studies led to proposals that seemed attractive enough to be implemented by the state, and, in this respect, the experiment was a disappointment, although in view of the wide scope of the problems attacked and the limited effort called for by the study contracts, the result is not surprising. On the other hand, the experiment was useful in advertising the possibilities of systems analysis as applied to civil problems and in illuminating difficulties that may be encountered in making such applications. The experiment stimulated interest in the civil uses of systems methods both inside and outside the United States.

      The potential applications of the systems approach to governmental activities are so numerous and so varied, in both the developed and developing worlds, that an exhaustive catalog would be out of the question. Nevertheless, it may be worthwhile to list a few of the most conspicuous possibilities. The most obvious class is made up of massive engineering attacks on very broad socioeconomic problems. These are the situations that seem to have most in common with the applications of systems methods in developing weapons. They include new transportation systems, comprehensive attacks on pollution, and radical reconstruction of urban areas. A concrete issue is the problem of power-plant location, an urgent question in many advanced and developing countries. The systems overtones are obvious. Generating stations are customarily interconnected so that a new plant has an impact on the availability of power over a considerable region, and, of course, the effects of thermal and atmospheric pollution from a given plant may also be widespread.

      Other applications of systems analysis in the social sphere tend generally to be smaller and more easily treated. One class consists of the extension of military budgeting and methods of financial control to the nonmilitary world. Another application has been the use of systems analysis to support the technical aspect of foreign-aid programs. Other fields include the possible application of specific items of new technology in such areas as crime detection, fire fighting, and traffic control. Still other studies involve specific aspects of such subjects as housing and other types of building construction. Such studies attempt to be useful rather than broad or necessarily definitive for all time to come.

      The applications of systems analysis in civil government obviously still have far to go before their potentialities are exhausted. On the other hand, there are many reasons why these potentialities can be realized only slowly, if at all. Some of them are related to the inherent difficulty of the problems presented—the wide range of both technical and social considerations that may enter certain decisions, for example. Others reflect some of the common characteristics of governmental structure, the necessary bureaucratization of functions, for example, or the frequent problem of overlapping jurisdiction. Still other problems reflect the fact that existing systems analysts are trained preponderantly in the physical sciences and engineering and thus may not be well matched to the socioeconomic issues they are likely to confront, though most systems analysis groups working in socioeconomic questions try to balance their strength by adding appropriate missing skills. The most common problem, however, is probably simply the need to build up an adequate basis for mutual cooperation between systems analysts and government.

      As such an evolution proceeds, there may be an increasing tendency for individual systems analysts to become identified with the substantive area in which they work and to lose their special relations to systems analysis as a distinctive field. Thus, it may be the ultimate fate of systems analysis to disappear as a separate field and instead become an important constituent of the planning function required in many parts of modern society.

Hendrik W. Bode William K. Holstein

Additional Reading

Two classics on systems engineering are Philip M. Morse and George E. Kimball, Methods of Operations Research, rev. ed. (1951, reissued 1970), the introductory discussion still useful for orientation but the specific examples mostly from World War II; and Operations Research for Management, vol. 1 ed. by Joseph F. McCloskey and Florence N. Trefethen (1954), and vol. 2 ed. by Joseph F. McCloskey and J.M. Coppinger (1956), with a broad range of examples, many of which are still of interest. Later books, with more stress on mathematical techniques, include Charles West Churchman, Russell L. Ackoff, and E. Leonard Arnoff, Introduction to Operations Research (1957, reprinted 1961), a fair survey of the field but more useful for its description of operations research methodology; and Frederick S. Hillier and Gerald J. Lieberman, Introduction to Operations Research, 3rd ed. (1980), with more emphasis on methodology (and probabilistic techniques in particular) and less suited to the general reader. Kenichi Ohmae, The Mind of the Strategist: The Art of Japanese Business (1982), is a good survey of strategy techniques.The earliest significant books directly related to systems engineering are Harry H. Goode and Robert E. Machol, System Engineering: An Introduction to the Design of Large-Scale Systems (1957), and Robert E. Machol, Wilson P. Tanner, and Samuel N. Alexander (eds.), System Engineering Handbook (1965). These cover the philosophy and methodology of systems engineering; however, both books are directed primarily at large military systems and are less useful for other applications. Another book that covers both philosophical and technical aspects of systems engineering is Arthur D. Hall, A Methodology for Systems Engineering (1962, reprinted 1968). Harold Chestnut, Systems Engineering Tools (1965), and Systems Engineering Methods (1967), deal largely with methodology. James Botkin et al., Global Stakes: The Future of High Technology in America (1982, reprinted 1984), explores specific methods of development. More general references include Steven L. Dickerson and Joseph E. Robertshaw, Planning and Design, The Systems Approach (1975); and Dean Karnopp and Ronald Rosenberg, System Dynamics: A Unified Approach (1975).Among shorter works, an article by Hendrick W. Bode, “The Systems Approach,” in National Research Council, Panel on Applied Science and Technological Progress, Applied Science and Technological Progress: A Report to the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S. House of Representatives, pp. 73–94 (1967), furnishes a broad discussion of the field. G.M. Jenkins, “The Systems Approach,” J. Systems Engng., 1:3–49 (1969), offers a valuable elementary introduction to systems engineering. Charles Hitch, “Sub-optimization in Operations Problems,” Journal of the Operations Research Society of America, 1(3):87–99 (May 1953), is a classic.

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