tin processing

Introduction

      preparation of the ore for use in various products.

      Tin (Sn) is a relatively soft and ductile metal with a silvery white colour. It has a density of 7.29 grams per cubic centimetre, a low melting point of 231.88° C (449.38° F), and a high boiling point of 2,625° C (4,757° F). Tin is allotropic; that is, it takes on more than one form. The normal form is white tin, or beta tin, which has a body-centred tetragonal crystal structure. The second allotrope, gray or alpha tin, has a face-centred cubic structure. Gray tin is theoretically stable below 13° C (55° F), but in practice it is readily formed only at about −40° C (−40° F). This transformation is difficult to initiate and is severely retarded by the presence of alloying elements or trace impurities. Nonetheless, it has given rise to the extremely rare laboratory curiosity known as tin pest.

      Tin finds industrial application both as a metal and in chemical compounds. As a metal it is used in a very wide variety of industrial applications—but almost always in combination with other elements as an alloy or coating, since its intrinsic softness precludes its use as a structural material. Although tin is usually a minor constituent in alloys, it is an essential one on account of the way in which its special properties confer improvements to the matrix metal.

      The major commercial applications of tin are in tinplate, solder alloys, bearing metals, tin and alloy coatings (both plated and hot-coated), pewter, bronzes, and fusible alloys. In its chemical reactions, tin exists in two valence states (II and IV) and is amphoteric (able to react as both an acid and a base). In addition, it can link directly with carbon to form organometallic compounds. These properties have given rise to many important uses for tin chemicals—for example, in electroplating, agricultural and pharmaceutical products, and plastics and ceramics.

History

      There is evidence from both archaeology and literature that tin was one of the earliest metals to be known and used. Its earliest application was as an alloy with copper to form bronze, which was fashioned into tools and weapons. Bronze articles (typically containing about 10 percent tin) have been found in the Middle East dating from about 3500 BC and in Egypt from 3000 BC. Other ancient civilizations also used bronze articles; for example, Chinese bronzes have been dated to about 2250 BC.

      Tin was obviously an important item of trade from early times, as it is mentioned in at least three books of the Bible (Numbers, Isaiah, and Ezekiel) dating from as long ago as 700 BC.

       pewter is a tin alloy that also has a long history. Probably the oldest known piece, dating from about 1500 BC, was found in Egypt, but it was the Roman civilization that developed pewter ware for household vessels and ornamental use. These applications have continued to the present day, although the alloy compositions have changed markedly.

      The use of tin as a coating for other metals also has ancient historical roots, with tinned copper vessels for cooking tracing back to Roman times. Most important was the development of tinning iron sheet in order to form tinplate. This began in central Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries and gradually spread throughout the continent. The original uses of tinplate were for household articles, including lanterns, plates, and drinking vessels; however, with the introduction of food canning in 1812, packaging became the major use of tinplate.

      An important date from more recent history is 1839, when the American metalsmith Isaac Babbitt first used tin-based alloys in bearings for machinery. Babbitt metal considerably aided the development of the industrial society. Further developments in tin alloys, coatings, and chemicals have contributed to advances in transport, telecommunication, aerospace, packaging, agriculture, and environmental protection.

Ores

      The principal tin mineral is cassiterite, or tinstone (SnO₂), a naturally occurring oxide of tin containing about 78.8 percent tin. Of less importance are two complex sulfide minerals, stannite (Cu₂FeSnS₄), a copper-iron-tin sulfide, and cylindrite (PbSn₄FeSb₂S₁₄), a lead-tin-iron-antimony sulfide. These two minerals occur chiefly in lode deposits in Bolivia, often in association with other metals such as silver.

      Unlike most base metals, economically viable deposits of cassiterite are restricted to a few geographic areas. The most important of these is in Southeast Asia and includes the tin-mining areas of China, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Other major producing countries are Brazil, Australia, Nigeria, and Congo (Kinshasa). Minor producers are Peru, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and Zimbabwe. There is no significant tin deposit in the United States and only relatively small production in Canada.

      About 80 percent of the world's tin comes from alluvial or secondary deposits. Most of these occur on land, but in certain areas, notably in Indonesia and Thailand, the deposits are mined offshore by dredging the seabed.

      Even in the richest tin fields, the concentration of tin is very low. This means that up to seven or eight tons of ore may have to be mined in order to recover one kilogram of cassiterite.

mining and concentrating

      Vein deposits, such as those in Bolivia and the United Kingdom, usually occur in granite formations and are recovered by conventional underground hard-rock mining techniques. In deep mines, primary crushing equipment is usually located underground in order to reduce the ore to a manageable size before transportation to the surface.

      The more productive alluvial fields are relatively shallow deposits of fine-grained minerals that have accumulated in ancient riverbeds or valleys. They are mined by one of several surface-mining methods, principally gravel pumping, dredging, and, to a smaller extent, open-pit mining. A large proportion of tin ore is mined by gravel pumping. In this method, the barren overburden is removed, often by draglines or shovels, and high-pressure water jets are used to break up and dislodge the tin-bearing sand. A submerged gravel pump then sucks up the slurry of mud and water and raises it to a series of sluice boxes, or palongs, which slope downward and have baffles placed at intervals along their length. As the slurry flows along, the heavier minerals, including cassiterite, fall to the bottom, while the lighter waste material flows over the end of the boxes to tailings dumps. Periodically the flow is stopped and the crude concentrate removed.

      In places where water is plentiful, an area above an alluvial deposit is flooded, often by diverting a river, and a mining dredge floated on it. Dredges have endless bucket chains at one end that dig and lift the tin-bearing ore to the primary processing plant, which is usually located on board. Ores are concentrated by gravity separation methods, including jigs and shaking tables. The concentrate is then collected for further treatment onshore, while the barren material is discharged over the stern of the dredge.

      Tin concentrates from the alluvial mining areas of Southeast Asia are relatively free of impurities, although there may be small quantities of related minerals such as wolframite, scheelite, and columbite. Concentrates shipped to the smelter usually contain 70 to 75 percent tin metal. On the other hand, the complex sulfide ores found in underground deposits, such as those of Bolivia, require more complicated mineral processing, often involving froth flotation, in order to produce a clean tin concentrate. Even then, Bolivian concentrates may average only 50 to 60 percent tin.

Extraction and refining

smelting

      Before being smelted, low-grade concentrates from complex ores are first roasted in a reverberatory or multiple-hearth furnace at temperatures between 550° and 650° C (1,025° and 1,200° F) to drive off the sulfur. Depending on the type and quantity of impurities, oxidizing, reducing, or chlorinating reactions take place. Roasting is frequently followed by leaching with water or acid solutions to remove impurities made soluble by roasting.

      After appropriate preparation, the furnace feed for smelting comprises tin oxide and some impurities, including iron oxides, that were not removed in mineral processing or roasting.

      Tin smelting furnaces are one of three basic types: reverberatory furnaces, blast furnaces, or electric furnaces. Usually the operation is carried out as a batch process.

      The principle of tin smelting is the chemical reduction of tin oxide by heating with carbon to produce tin metal and carbon dioxide gas. In practice, the furnace feed contains the tin oxide concentrate, carbon in the form of anthracite coal or coke, and limestone to act as a flux and a slag-producing agent.

      In a typical reverberatory process (the most commonly used), the furnace is heated to 1,300°–1,400° C (2,375°–2,550° F) for a period of some 15 hours, during which it is stirred frequently, especially during the later stages. This process produces a pool of molten tin, on top of which floats a slag containing most of the unwanted impurities.

      At the completion of smelting, the impure tin is tapped off and cast into large slabs, while the slag is solidified into granules by being poured into water tanks. The impure tin slabs go for further refining, and the granulated slag, which may still contain some tin, is retreated.

Refining

      There are two methods of refining impure tin. Fire refining is most commonly used and produces tin (up to 99.85 percent) suitable for general commercial use. Electrolytic refining is used on the products of complex ores and to produce a very high grade of tin (up to 99.999 percent).

      One fire-refining method is called boiling. In this, impure tin from the smelter, or tin from the liquation furnace (see below), is heated in vessels or kettles that are agitated by compressed air. The effect is to oxidize the impurities, which rise to the surface and form a dross.

      Another fire-refining method is liquation. Used to treat both impure tin and dross from smelting, it removes those impurities that have a higher melting temperature than tin. The materials to be treated are placed on a sloping hearth in a reverberatory furnace and heated to a temperature just above the melting point of tin. The tin melts slowly and runs down the slope, to be collected in a vessel, leaving the unmelted residues on the hearth. These are subsequently removed and treated.

      Vacuum distillation is sometimes used in fire refining. In this process, molten tin is heated in a dense graphite vessel at high temperatures (1,100° to 1,300° C, or 2,000° to 2,375° F). A vacuum is applied, and impurities are removed by selective distillation at their respective boiling temperatures.

      In electrolytic refining, impure tin is cast into anodes. These are placed into an acidic electrolyte with starting cathodes made of thin sheets cast from high-purity tin. Special agents are required in the electrolyte in order to obtain dense, compact cathode deposits. After a period of about a week, the cathodes are removed.

      Tin is normally sold in the form of ingots, or pigs, which are cast from refined tin. Most metallic tin is produced at smelters and refineries located near mining areas.

Secondary tin

      Important sources of tin scrap are used bearings, solder alloys, or bronzes. Frequently, it is economic not to recover high-grade tin from these but to use the tin-containing scrap to produce alloys directly.

      Tin residues may be treated like tin concentrates and smelted and refined as described above. Electrolytic refining is frequently employed for secondary-tin production.

      Tinplate, whether as clean can-makers' scrap or from used cans, is another source of secondary tin. The tinplate is detinned electrolytically to produce a high grade of tin and a clean steel scrap, which is returned to steelmakers.

The metal and its alloys

      The industrial uses of tin fall into two basic categories. On the one hand, there are major traditional uses, such as tinplate, coatings, solders, bronzes, and bearing alloys, that are based on empirical knowledge accumulated over many years but are continually being refined and developed to meet the technological needs of the age. On the other hand, there are new industrial uses that have followed from the scientific determination of properties and from research into the means of exploiting those properties.

tinplate

      A major end use for tin is tinplate, which accounts for about 30 percent of total tin consumption. Tinplate is basically a steel product with a tin coating that may be only one micrometre (0.00004 inch) thick.

      Until the middle of the 20th century, tinplate was manufactured in specially designed tinning plants by immersing individual sheets in a bath of molten tin. This hot-dip method has been superseded by a continuous electroplating process, in which tin is plated directly onto a moving steel strip. A typical modern electrolytic tinplate line operates at speeds up to 600 metres (2,000 feet) per minute and has an annual productive capacity of some 300,000 tons, with a consumption of about 1,800 tons of tin.

      Approximately 90 percent of all tinplate finds its way into the packaging industry, with the remainder going into light engineering uses. Tinplate cans are used for virtually all kinds of processed foods and for a host of other products.

      The traditional tinplate can is built up from three pieces of metal: a cylindrical body, formed from a rectangular blank and with a locked and soldered side seam; and two ends, one seamed on by the can maker and the other by the packer after the can is filled. This type of can has been virtually replaced by one with a welded side seam. In addition, a new type of two-piece tinplate container, this one with a drawn and wall-ironed seamless body, was developed initially for the beer and soft-drinks market but has extended into food packaging.

      Although tinplate is a traditional product, it is a continually evolving one. As an example, in 1965 the average thickness of a can wall was about 0.25 millimetre (0.01 inch). In 1990 it was about 0.18 millimetre or, in the two-piece can, as little as 0.10 to 0.15 millimetre.

Tin and tin-alloy coatings

      The properties of tin make it ideal for use as a coating. Owing to the low melting point of tin, and because it readily alloys with most other metals, tin coatings can easily be produced by immersing a suitably prepared metal object in a bath of molten tin. Hot-dipped tin coatings present a good appearance and are tightly adherent. When coated sheets are severely drawn and worked, the coating, rather than flaking off, acts beneficially as a lubricant.

      Tin coatings may also be produced by electroplating the metal from an aqueous solution of its salts. Both bright and matte-finish tin coatings can be produced.

      The value of tin as a coating metal is further enhanced by a wide range of tin-alloy coatings, each with its own specific properties and applications. Among the commercial electroplated coatings in common use are tin-zinc, tin-nickel, tin-copper, and tin-lead. These are used as both protective and decorative finishes. Tin-zinc coatings are used for a number of industrial applications, especially in the automotive industry. Tin-nickel is highly resistant to corrosion and tarnish, finding special use in electrical equipment and scientific instruments. The appearance of tin-copper coatings ranges from a bronze colour to white, depending on the proportions of copper and tin. Tin-lead alloys can be applied by electroplating and by hot-dipping; they are extensively used to provide solderable surfaces on other metals. Tin-lead coatings on steel sheet (known as terneplate) are used for long-term outdoor corrosion protection and also for gasoline tanks.

Tin-based solders

      A second large application of tin is in solders for joining metals. The most common solders are basically alloys of lead and tin. Since these metals can be alloyed across the whole range of proportions, an infinite number of compositions is possible; in practice, though, most solders contain from 30 to 70 percent tin, with occasional minor additions for special purposes. Apart from one alloy—the eutectic 62-percent-tin–38-percent-lead alloy, which melts at 183° C (361° F)—all tin-lead solders soften over a temperature range before melting; this “pasty range” is made use of in certain molding and wipe-soldering applications.

      The major application of solders is for making electrical connections in the electrical and electronics industries. Much modern equipment, particularly in electronics, is now assembled on high-speed, automated production lines in which large numbers of soldered connections are made simultaneously. A further development in electronics is surface-mounted technology, in which the components (often very complicated microcircuits) are not attached by wire leads but are soldered directly onto the circuit boards.

      Special tin-based solders have been developed for specific applications. For example, lead-free solders are produced for use in domestic water systems, especially for drinking water. These are essentially high-tin alloys with a few percent copper or silver added.

Low-temperature casting alloys

      Apart from joining metals, solders are also used as low-melting-point casting alloys. Allied to solders in this application are the so-called fusible alloys. Usually more complex alloy systems than the simple solders, fusible alloys may contain bismuth, cadmium, antimony, and occasionally indium and gallium.

      In addition to their low melting points, fusible alloys have other distinctive properties. For example, by careful selection of the constituent metals, alloys can be obtained that either grow on solidification, remain dimensionally stable, or shrink to predetermined degrees. Fusible alloys that expand on solidification are used in machining to embed small, complex objects that must be held fast. Other alloys are used in pipe bending and forming as temporary internal mandrels or supports that can be melted out at low temperature after use.

      Fusible alloy systems that melt at price temperatures also can be produced. These are used as safety thermal fuses—e.g., in fire detection or fire control apparatuses—or as temperature indicators in components such as test bearings, where other forms of temperature indication cannot be employed. Other fusible alloys are used as sealing materials for special applications, such as double-glazing panels.

bronze

      The alloying of copper and tin to form bronze predates written history, and yet bronze continues to be an important industrial use for tin. Tin bronzes are alloys of tin with copper, copper-lead, and copper-lead-zinc. Cast bronzes contain up to 12 percent tin—except for special applications such as bells and musical instruments, in which a tin content up to 20 percent imparts required tonal qualities. Leaded bronzes, containing up to 15 percent lead, are used in heavy-duty bearings. The zinc-containing alloys, known as gunmetals, are cheaper than tin bronzes and are used in valves and fittings for steam and water lines.

Bearing alloys

      Alloys of tin with about 7 percent antimony and 3 percent copper have proved to be the best materials for plain bearings running against a steel shaft. Known as tin-based babbitt metals or white metals, they owe their reputation to the ability to deform sufficiently in order to compensate for irregularities in the bearing assembly, to embed foreign particles in order to prevent scoring, and to retain oil films on their surfaces. White-metal bearings are cast onto steel, bronze, or cast-iron backing shells. However, in applications where bearings are highly loaded, the strength of tin-rich alloys may be insufficient, so that an alloy of 80 percent aluminum and 20 percent tin is customarily used. This alloy, bonded to a steel or bronze shell, is widely used in diesel engines and in the high-performance engine of most automobiles.

pewter

      Another traditional use for tin that has been revolutionized by modern developments is pewter ware. The composition of this alloy has changed greatly, particularly with the elimination of the lead found in Roman and medieval alloys. Modern pewter ware is a high-tin alloy, containing from 90 to 97 percent tin and small additions of antimony and copper—elements that are added to harden and strengthen the intrinsically soft tin.

      Traditionally, pewter ware has been cast into metal molds, usually of gunmetal or iron. High-quality cast pewter is still made in this way, but centrifugal casting in rubber molds and pressure die-casting are also employed for mass production. A large quantity of pewter ware is also produced from pewter sheet, which is rolled from cast slabs. Sheet pewter is easily worked and can be drawn, hammered, or spun into a variety of shapes. In addition to household goods, ornaments, and jewelry, a less familiar use of pewter alloys is for organ pipes.

Tin-alloyed cast iron

      Iron castings used in automobiles contain about 0.1 percent tin, a small addition that improves the wear resistance, hardness, and uniformity of the iron castings in addition to enhancing their machinability. Typical uses are for cylinder blocks, crankshafts, axles, brake drums, and transmission components, as well as other industrial applications such as lathe beds and hydraulic lifting equipment.

Minor uses

      An interesting application of the low melting point and high vapour pressure of tin is in the float-glass method of making glass sheet and plate. Molten glass, at a temperature of about 1,000° C (1,800° F), is poured directly from the furnace onto the surface of a bath of molten tin. After solidifying on this completely flat surface, the resultant wide band of glass is smooth on both surfaces, eliminating the need for grinding and polishing.

      Another use of pure tin is in foil or in thin sheet for collapsible tubes. Both have limited and specialized uses—for example, tin foil for some food and confectionery products and tin collapsible tubes for pharmaceuticals. Solid tin tubes, or tin-lined tubes, are used in the production and storage of high-purity distilled water and in some brewery equipment.

      A tin-silver alloy is the most commonly used white alloy in dental fillings. The alloy normally used is approximately 75 percent silver and 25 percent tin, with small additions of copper and zinc.

      One of the most successful superconducting materials is an intermetallic compound of tin and niobium; it has been used to manufacture high-power electromagnets.

      A number of titanium-based aerospace materials are alloys containing tin and aluminum. Their compositions vary from 5-percent-aluminum–2.5-percent-tin to 2.75-percent-aluminum–11-to-13-percent-tin. Zirconium-tin alloys, known as zircaloys, contain about 1.5 percent tin; they have been used as cladding material for the fuel elements in nuclear reactors.

Chemical compounds

      Chemists classify tin compounds into two main groupings, inorganic and organotin compounds. The inorganic tin compounds are relatively simple in their molecular structure and, like tin itself, are not considered to be toxic. Tin atoms can replace carbon atoms in chemical compounds, and organotin compounds are defined as compounds in which at least one tin-to-carbon bond exists.

Organotin compounds

      It is important to note that the toxicity of organotin chemicals varies quite considerably and that particular differences obtain in the four main “families” of chemicals—that is, the mono-, di-, tri-, and tetra-compounds.

      The greatest tonnage of organotins is used for stabilizers in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, or PVC. The particular importance of these di-organotins lies in their outstanding ability to preserve the clarity and transparency of PVC, not only when being processed but also in subsequent service. Organotin-stabilized PVC is used in water pipes in domestic water systems and in food packaging applications. Tin compounds used in these applications are nontoxic.

      In contrast to the nontoxic compounds employed as stabilizers, some tri-organotin compounds (e.g., tributyl- and triphenyltins) are powerful biocides and have found use in a number of relevant applications, such as fungicides, wood preservatives, antifouling paints, and hospital and veterinary disinfectants. Because of its toxicity, the use of tributyltin oxide (not compounds) in certain applications, such as wood preservatives for retail sale and antifouling paints for small pleasure craft, may be restricted.

Inorganic tin compounds

      Industrial applications of inorganic tin chemicals can be classified as direct or indirect. Indirect applications include the tin salts used as electrolytes for tinplate and the tin chemical compounds used as intermediates in the manufacture of other compounds.

      The largest use for inorganic tin compounds is in electrolytes for plating tin and tin alloys. The more important plating chemicals are chlorides, sulfates, and fluoroborates in acidic electrolytes and stannates in alkaline solutions.

      Of the direct applications, some of the more interesting include the use of mixed tin oxide–metal oxide systems as pigments and glazes in the ceramics industry (as in tin-glazed earthenware), and a very important application in the glass industry is the use of thin, transparent tin oxide films on glassware to strengthen lightweight glass bottles, jars, and other vessels. The effect of this invisible coating on both surfaces of a bottle is to impart a smooth, almost frictionless surface that prevents scratching of the glass, thus eliminating stress points and effectively making the bottle tougher and stronger. Thick films of tin oxide can conduct electricity and are used for deicing windows and for illuminated signs. Another use of tin oxide in the glass industry is for anodes in electric melting furnaces.

      Inorganic tin chemicals are used as catalysts in a number of industrial processes. For example, in the manufacture of polyurethane foam (used in seat cushions and other upholstery work), a tin compound, stannous octoate, is the catalyst that produces the foaming action that turns the liquid plastic into a foamlike solid structure.

      There are a number of miscellaneous uses for inorganic tin compounds, including the use of tin chlorides to stabilize colour and aroma in toiletry products and to retain colour and flavour in some preserved foods. Anhydrous tin oxide is used as a polishing medium for marble, granite, optical lenses, and semiprecious stones. Tin sulfide is used as a bronzing agent for wood colouring known as “Mosaic gold.” Tin chemicals are also used as flame retardants to treat fabrics and plastics.

B.T.K. Barry

Additional Reading

Comprehensive and up-to-date information on many aspects of metallurgy, individual metals, and alloys can be found in convenient reference-form arrangement in the following works: Metals Handbook, 9th ed., 17 vol. (1978–89), a massive and detailed source prepared under the direction of the American Society for Metals, with a 10th edition that began publication in 1990; Herman F. Mark et al. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3rd ed., 31 vol. (1978–84), formerly known as Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, with a 4th edition begun in 1991; and its European counterpart, the first English-language edition of a monumental German work, Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 5th, completely rev. ed., edited by Wolfgang Gerhartz et al. (1985– ). Ed.B.T.K. Barry and C.J. Thwaites, Tin and Its Alloys and Compounds (1983), is a detailed scientific monograph covering the physical and chemical properties of tin and all aspects of its applications, both as a metal and as a chemical. Focus on mining, smelting, and refining is provided in C.L. Mantell, Tin: Its Mining, Production, Technology, and Applications, 2nd ed. (1949, reissued 1970). Ernest S. Hedges (ed.), Tin and Its Alloys (1960), contains expert contributions on the major metallurgical uses of tin. S.J. Blunden, P.A. Cusack, and R. Hill, The Industrial Uses of Tin Chemicals (1985), is a detailed scientific monograph on production, properties, and applications of tin compounds.B.T.K. Barry

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