- Santali language
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Santali also spelled Santhalia Munda language (Munda languages) spoken primarily in the east-central Indian states of West Bengal, Jharkhand, and Orissa. At the turn of the 21st century there were approximately 6 million speakers of Santali, some 4.8 million of whom lived in India, more than 150,000 in Bangladesh, and about 40,000 in tea districts in Nepal. In India more than 2 million Santals lived in Jharkhand, nearly 2 million in West Bengal, several hundred thousand in Orissa, and about 100,000 in Assam.Santali includes a northern and a southern dialect. It is the major member of a sub-group of the Kherwarian branch of North Munda. Kherwarian also includes Mundari and Ho, each with about one million speakers. Santali is an official scheduled language of India.The self-designation of the Santals is hɔṛ ‘man' or hɔṛ hɔpɔn ‘sons of mankind.' They also use the term mañjhi/mãjhi ‘headman' as an ethnonym. They call their language hɔṛ rɔṛ. In northern West Bengal, Santali is known as jaŋli or paharia, in southern West Bengal and Orissa as ṭhaṛ, and in Jharkhand as parsi.Among the noteworthy characteristics of Santali phonology is the use of “checked” or preglottalized consonants in final position, as in sε' ‘towards' and dak' ‘water.' In terms of morphology, Santali makes extensive use of suffixes and infixes, but prefixes are found only in a small number of “frozen” forms. Nouns are divided into animate and inanimate stems; inanimate stems may take a locational or directional suffix.The Santali verb is quite complex, with suffixes for subject, tense and aspect, transitivity, various kinds of objects, possessor, and finiteness. Subject is frequently marked on the word immediately preceding the verb and may even be a subject pronoun itself. Thus, “yes I will go” is rendered hεSantali language ‘yes' + iñ-iñ ‘I (first person singular subject) + ala'k-a ‘go (finite),' and “they killed my pig” is rendered sukri-ko ‘pig (third person plural)' + gɔ'-ke-d-e-tiñ-a ‘die (aorist–transitive–third person singular object–first person singular possessive–finite)'. The language has been written in numerous scripts: roman (roman script), Devanagari (Devanāgarī), and the indigenous script known colloquially as Ol Cemet.Gregory David Shelton AndersonAdditional ReadingA general overview of Santali is G.D.S. Anderson, “Santali,” in Jane Garry and Carl Rubino (eds.), Facts About the World's Languages: An Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages, Past and Present (2001), pp. 623–628. Additional sources include Campbell's Santali–English Dictionary, 3rd ed. edited by R.M. Macphail, 2 vol. (1953–54, reissued in 1 vol., 1988); P.O. Bodding, Materials for a Santali Grammar, 2 vol. (1922–29); and Arun Ghosh, Santali: A Look into Santali Morphology (1994), and “Santali,” in G.D.S. Anderson (ed.), The Munda Languages (2008), pp. 11–98.Gregory David Shelton Anderson
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