reproductive system, animal

Introduction

      any of the organ systems by which animals reproduce.

      The role of reproduction is to provide for the continued existence of a species; it is the process by which living organisms duplicate themselves. Animals compete with other individuals in the environment to maintain themselves for a period of time sufficient to enable them to produce tissue nonessential to their own survival, but indispensable to the maintenance of the species. The additional tissue, reproductive tissue, usually becomes separated from the individual to form a new, independent organism.

      This article describes the reproductive systems in metazoans (multicelled animals) from sponges to mammals, exclusive of humans. It focuses on the gonads (gonad) (sex organs), associated ducts and glands (gland), and adaptations that aid in the union of gametes (gamete)—i.e., reproductive cells, male or female, that are capable of producing a new individual by union with a gamete of the opposite sex. Brief mention is made of how the organism provides for the development of embryos and of the regulatory role of gonads in vertebrate cycles. For discussion of reproduction in humans, see reproductive system, human.

      Unlike most other organ systems, the reproductive systems of higher animals have not generally become more complex than those of lower forms. Asexual reproduction (i.e., reproduction not involving the union of gametes), however, occurs only in the invertebrates, in which it is common, occurring in animals as highly evolved as the sea squirts, which are closely related to the vertebrates. Temporary gonads are common among lower animals; in higher animals, however, gonads are permanent organs. hermaphroditism, in which one individual contains functional reproductive organs of both sexes, is common among lower invertebrates; yet separate sexes occur in such primitive animals as sponges, and hermaphroditism occurs in animals more highly evolved—e.g., the lower fishes. Gonads located on or near the animal surface are common in the lowest invertebrates, but in higher animals they tend to be more deeply situated and often involve intricate duct systems. In echinoderms, which are among the highest invertebrates, the gonads hang directly into the sea and spill their gametes into the water. In protochordates, gametes are released into a stream of respiratory water that passes directly into the sea. Duct systems of the invertebrate flatworms (Platyhelminthes) are relatively complex, and those of specialized arthropods (e.g., insects, spiders, crabs) are more complex than those of any vertebrate. Copulatory organs occur in flatworms, but copulatory organs are not ubiquitous among vertebrates other than reptiles and mammals. The trend toward fewer eggs and increased parental care in higher animals may account for the relative lack of complexity in the reproductive systems of some advanced forms. Whereas trends toward increasing structural complexity have often been reversed during evolution, reproductive behaviour patterns in many phylogenetic (i.e., evolutionary) lines have become more complicated in order to enhance the opportunity for fertilization of eggs and maximum survival of offspring (see sex).

      A direct relationship exists between behaviour and the functional state of gonads. Reproductive behaviour induced principally but not exclusively by organic substances called hormones promotes the union of sperm (spermatozoa) and eggs, as well as any parental care accorded the young. There are a number of reasons why behaviour must be synchronized with gonadal activity. Chief among these are the following:

      Individuals of a species must congregate at the time the gonads contain mature gametes. This often entails migration, and some members of all major vertebrate groups migrate long distances to gather at spawning grounds or rookeries.

      Individuals with gametes ready to be shed must recognize members of the opposite sex. Recognition is sometimes by external appearance or by chemical substances (pheromones), but sex-linked behaviour is often the only signal.

      Geographical territories frequently must be established and aggressively defended.

      The building of nests, however simple, is essential reproductive behaviour in many species.

      When fertilization of aquatic forms is external, sperm and eggs must be discharged at approximately the same time into the water, since gametes may be quickly dispersed by currents. courtship, often involving highly intricate behaviour patterns, serves to release the gametes of both mating individuals simultaneously.

      When fertilization is internal, willingness of the female to mate is often essential. Female mammals not in a state of willingness to mate not only will not mate but may injure or even kill an aggressive male. The unwillingness of a female mammal to mate when mature eggs are not present prevents loss of sperm needed to preserve the species.

      Parental care of fertilized eggs by one parent or the other has evolved in many species. Parental behaviour includes fanning the water or air around the eggs, thereby maintaining appropriate temperature and oxygen levels; secretion of oxygen from a parent's gills; transport of eggs on or in the parental body (including the mouth of some male parents); and brooding, or incubation, of eggs.

      Some species extend parental care into the postnatal period, feeding and protecting the offspring. Such behaviour patterns are adaptations for survival and thus are essential; all are induced by the nervous and endocrine systems and are typically cyclical, because gonadal activity is cyclical (see also reproductive behaviour.)

Reproductive systems (reproductive system, animal) of invertebrates (invertebrate)

Gonads, associated structures, and products

      Although asexual reproduction occurs in many invertebrate species, most reproduce sexually. The basic unit of sexual reproduction is a gamete (sperm or egg), produced by specialized tissues or organs called gonads. Sexual reproduction does not necessarily imply copulation or even a union of gametes. As might be expected of such a large and diverse group as the invertebrates, many variations have evolved to ensure survival of species. In many lower invertebrates, gonads are temporary organs; in higher forms, however, they are permanent. Some invertebrates have coexistent female and male gonads; in others the same gonad produces both sperm and eggs. Animals in which both sperm and eggs are produced by the same individual (hermaphroditism) are termed monoecious. In dioecious species, the sexes are separate. Generally, the male gonads ripen first in hermaphroditic animals (protandry); this tends to ensure cross-fertilization. self-fertilization is normal, however, in many species, and some species undergo sex reversal.

Sponges (sponge), coelenterates, flatworms, and aschelminths

      Sponges are at a cellular level of organization and thus do not have organs or even well-developed tissues; nevertheless, they produce sperm and eggs and also reproduce asexually. Some species of sponge are monoecious, others are dioecious. Sperm and eggs are formed by aggregations of cells called amoebocytes in the body wall; these are not considered gonads because of their origin and transitory nature.

      In hydrozoan coelenterates (cnidarian), temporary gonads are formed by groups of cells in either the epidermis (outer cell layer) or gastrodermis (gut lining), depending on the species; scyphozoan and anthozoan coelenterates generally have gonads in the gastrodermis. The origin and development of gonads in coelenterates, particularly freshwater species, are often associated with the seasons. Freshwater hydrozoans, for example, reproduce asexually until the onset of cold weather, which stimulates them to form testes and ovaries. Colonial hydrozoans asexually produce individuals known as polyps (polyp). Polyps, in turn, give rise to free swimming stages (medusae), in which gonads develop. The body organization of sponges and coelenterates is such that most of their cells are in intimate contact with the environment; consequently, gametes are shed into the water, and no ducts are necessary to convey them to the outside.

      In contrast to sponges and coelenterates, platyhelminths generally have well-developed organ systems of a permanent nature and, in addition, have evolved secondary reproductive structures to convey sex products. One exception is the acoels, a group of primitive turbellarians; they lack permanent gonads, and germinal cells develop from amoebocytes in much the same manner as in sponges. The majority of flatworms (flatworm), however, are monoecious, the primary sex organs consisting of one or more ovaries and testes (testis). The tube from the ovary to the outside is called the oviduct; (fallopian tube) it often has an outpocketing (seminal receptacle) for the storage of sperm received during copulation. In many species the oviduct receives a duct from yolk (vitelline) glands, whose cells nourish the fertilized egg. Beyond the entrance of the duct from the yolk glands the oviduct may be modified to secrete a protective capsule around the egg before it is discharged to the outside. The male organs consist of testes, from which extend numerous tubules (vasa efferentia) that unite to form a sperm duct (vas deferens (ductus deferens)); the latter becomes an ejaculatory duct through which sperm are released to the outside. The sperm duct may exhibit expanded areas that store sperm (seminal vesicles (seminal vesicle)), and it may be surrounded by prostatic cells that contribute to the seminal fluid (semen). The sperm duct eventually passes through a copulatory organ. The same basic structural pattern, somewhat modified, is found in most higher invertebrates.

      Aschelminthes (aschelminth) (roundworms) are mostly dioecious; frequently there are external differences between males and females (sexual dimorphism). The males are generally smaller and often have copulatory spicules. Nematodes (nematode) have relatively simple reproductive organs, a tubular testis or ovary being located at the end of a twisted tube. The portion of the female tract nearest the ovary forms a uterus for temporary storage of fertilized eggs. Some species lay eggs, but others retain the egg in the uterus until the larva hatches. The sperm are released into a cavity called the cloaca. A number of free-living nematodes are capable of sex reversal—if the sex ratio in a given population is not optimal or if environmental conditions are not ideal, the ratio of males to females can be altered. This sometimes results in intersexes; i.e., females with some male characteristics. Hermaphroditism occurs in nematodes, and self-fertilization in such species is common. Unisexual reproduction among rotifers is described below (see Parthenogenesis (reproductive system, animal)).

Annelids (annelid) and mollusks

      Annelids have a well-developed body cavity (coelom), a part of the lining of which gives rise to gonads. In some annelids, gonads occur in several successive body segments. This is true, for example, in polychaetes (polychaete), most of which are dioecious. Testes and ovaries usually develop, though not invariably, in many body segments; and the sperm and eggs, often in enormous numbers, are stored in the coelom. Fertilization is external. In oligochaetes (all of which are monoecious) on the other hand, the gonads develop in a few specific segments. Sperm are stored in a seminal vesicle and eggs in an egg sac, rather than in the coelom. A portion of the peritoneum, the membrane lining the coelom, becomes a saclike seminal receptacle that stores sperm received from the mate. The earthworm, Lumbricus terrestris, is an example of a specialized annelid reproductive system. Female organs consist of a pair of ovaries in segment 13; a pair of oviducts that open via a ciliated funnel (i.e., with hairlike structures) into segment 13 but open to the exterior in segment 14; an egg sac near each funnel; and a pair of seminal receptacles in segment 9 and another in segment 10. Male organs consist of two pairs of minute testes in segments 10 and 11, each associated with a ciliated sperm funnel leading to a tiny duct, the vas efferens. The two ducts on each side lead to a vas deferens that opens in segment 15. Testes and funnels are contained within two of three pairs of large seminal vesicles that occupy six body segments. Leeches (leech) (Hirudinea), also monoecious, have one pair of ovaries and a segmentally arranged series of testes with duct systems basically similar to those of earthworms.

      Although mollusks (mollusk) have a close evolutionary kinship to annelids, they have reduced or lost many structures characteristic of segmented worms. The coelom persists only as three regional cavities: gonadal, nephridial (kidney), and pericardial (heart). In ancestral forms these were interconnected so that gametes from the gonad passed through the pericardial cavity, the nephridial cavity, then to the outside through a nephridial pore. The various groups of mollusks have tended to modify this arrangement, with the result that gonads have their own pore; among amphineurans, for example, the sexes are usually separate, and there is one gonad with an associated pore. Gastropods (gastropod) show considerable variability, but generally one gonad (ovary, testis, or ovotestis—a structure combining the functional gonads of both sexes) is located in the visceral hump and connected to the outside by a remnant of the right kidney. In hermaphroditic forms, one duct carries sperm as well as eggs. The gonadal ducts of gastropod females often secrete a protective capsule around the fertilized eggs; in males, the terminal portion of the duct is sometimes contained in a copulatory organ. Pelecypods may be either monoecious or dioecious, but the gonads are usually paired. In mussels and oysters, the gonads open through the nephridial pore, but in clams the reproductive system opens independently. The cephalopods are all dioecious. The single testis or ovary releases its products into the pericardial cavity and this, in turn, leads to a gonopore, the external opening. The oviduct of the squid is terminally modified to form a shell gland. The male system is more complex—the gonoduct leads into a seminal vesicle where a complicated torpedo-shaped sperm case (spermatophore) is secreted and contains the sperm. Spermatophores are then stored in a special structure (Needham's sac) until copulation occurs.

      A remarkable characteristic of some mollusks is the ability to alter their sex. Some species are clearly dioecious; however, among the monoecious species there is considerable variability in their hermaphroditic condition. In some species, male and female gonads, although in the same individual, are independent functionally and structurally. In others, an ovotestis produces both sperm and eggs. Oysters (oyster) display a third condition; young oysters have a tendency toward maleness, but, if water temperature or food availability is altered, some individuals develop into females. Later, a reversal to the male condition may occur. The sexual makeup of an entire oyster population also has a seasonal aspect; in harmony with the group, an individual may undergo several alterations in the course of a year. A similar phenomenon, called consecutive sexuality, occurs in limpets. These gastropods stack themselves in piles, with the younger animals on top. The animals on top are males with well-developed testes and copulatory organs; those in the middle are hermaphroditic; those on the bottom are females, having lost the testes and copulatory organ (penis) by degeneration. A decrease in the number of females in a stack induces males to assume female characteristics, but the transition is retarded when an excess of females is present. The degree of maleness or femaleness is probably controlled in part by environmental and internal factors.

Arthropods (arthropod)

      The phylum Arthropoda includes a vast number of organisms of great diversity. Most arthropods are dioecious, but many are hermaphroditic, and some reproduce parthenogenetically (i.e., without fertilization). The primary reproductive organs are much the same as in other higher invertebrates, but the secondary structures are often greatly modified. Such modifications depend on whether fertilization is internal or external, whether the egg or zygote (i.e., the fertilized egg) is retained or immediately released, and whether eggs are provided some means of protection after they have left the body of the female. The mandibulate arthropods (e.g., crustaceans (crustacean), insects) include more species than any other group and have invaded most habitats, a fact reflected in their reproductive processes.

      Crustaceans (e.g., crabs, crayfish, barnacles) are for the most part dioecious. The primary reproductive organs generally consist of paired gonads that open through paired ventral (bottom side) gonopores. Females often have a seminal receptacle (spermatheca) in the form of an outpocketing of the lower part of the female tract or as an invagination (inpocketing) of the body near the gonopore. Males have appendages modified for clasping the female during copulation or for guiding sperm. A number of groups have members that reproduce parthenogenetically. Branchiopods (branchiopod) (e.g., water fleas, fairy shrimp) have simple paired gonads. The female gonopore often opens dorsally (on the back side) into a brood chamber; the male gonopore opens near the anus. Males have appendages for clasping females during copulation. Ostracods (mussel shrimp), or seed shrimp, have paired, tubular gonads. The eggs may be brooded by the female, or they may be released into the water via a gonoduct and gonopore. The terminal portion of the male gonoduct is enclosed in a single or paired penis. Many species reproduce parthenogenetically. Some experts contend that this is the only method employed, even though functional males may be present in the population. Copepods (copepod) (e.g., Cyclops) have paired ovaries and an unpaired testis. The terminal portion of the oviduct constitutes an ovisac for storage of eggs. The male deposits sperm in a spermatophore that is transferred to the female. Sexual dimorphism is particularly evident among parasitic copepods. Frequently, parasitic females can hardly be recognized as copepods except for the distinctive ovisacs. Males, on the other hand, are free-living and are recognizable as copepods.

      The hermaphroditic Cirripedia (e.g., barnacles (barnacle)) are among the exceptions to the generalization that crustaceans are dioecious. It has been suggested that hermaphroditism in barnacles is an adaptation to their sessile, or stationary, existence, but cross-fertilization is more common than self-fertilization. The ovaries lie either in the base or in the stalk of the animal, and the female gonopore is near the base of the first pair of middle appendages (cirri). The testes empty into a seminal vesicle through a series of ducts; from the vesicle extends a long sperm duct within a penis that may be extended to deposit sperm in the mantle cavity of an adjacent barnacle. The terminal portion of the oviduct secretes a substance that forms a kind of ovisac within the mantle cavity, where fertilized eggs undergo early development. Although most barnacles are hermaphrodites, some display a peculiar adaptation in that they contain parasitic dwarf or accessory males. Dwarf males are much smaller than the host barnacle in which they live and are degenerate, except for the testes. In some species they live in the mantle cavity of hermaphroditic forms and produce accessory sperm; in other species only the female organs persist in the host animal, and the accessory male is a necessity.

      Amphipods (amphipod) and isopods (isopod) (e.g., pill bugs (pill bug), sow bugs (sow bug)), like most crustaceans, are dioecious and have paired gonads. Females of both groups have a ventral brood chamber (marsupium) formed by a series of medially directed (i.e., toward the body midline) plates (oostegites) in the region of the thorax, the region between head and abdomen. Many isopods are parasitic and have developed unusual sex-related activities. Certain species are parasitic on other crustaceans. After a series of molts (i.e., shedding of the body covering) a parasitic larval (immature) isopod attaches to the shell of a crab. If it is the only larva to do so, it increases in size and develops into an adult female. If another larva subsequently attaches, the new arrival becomes a male. It has been demonstrated that the testes of the functioning male larva will change to ovaries if the larva is removed to a new, uninfected host. Thus, the larvae of these species apparently are intersexual and can develop into either sex. This phenomenon, reminiscent of that in mollusks, demonstrates the way in which similar adaptations have evolved in diverse groups of organisms.

      The gonads of crabs and lobsters are paired, as are the gonopores. The females of many species have external seminal receptacles on the ventral part of the thorax; those of other species have internal receptacles in the same region. In some species, seminal receptacles are absent, and the male simply attaches a spermatophore to the female. Thus, males either have appendages (gonopods) by which sperm are inserted in the body of the female or produce spermatophores for sperm transfer. The sexual dimorphism of many decapods can be altered by parasitism. An example of this is the crab that is parasitized by a barnacle. A barnacle infection in male crabs induces the secondary sex characters of the crab to resemble those of a female; however, masculinization does not occur in parasitized females. At each molt a parasitized male crab increasingly resembles a female even though the testes may be completely unaffected. Feminization results from a hormonal alteration of the parasitized crab.

      Insects (insect) are rarely hermaphroditic, but many species reproduce parthenogenetically (without fertilization). The insect ovary is composed of clusters of tubules (ovarioles) with no lumen, or cavity. The upper portion of each ovariole gives rise to oocytes (immature eggs) that mature and are nourished by yolk from the lower portion. The oviduct leads to a genital chamber (copulatory bursa, or vagina), with which are often associated accessory glands and a seminal receptacle. Some accessory glands form secretions by which eggs become attached to a hard surface; others secrete a protective envelope around the egg. The eighth and ninth body segments are often modified for egg-laying. The paired testes consist of a series of seminal tubules that form primary spermatogonia (immature spermatozoa) at their upper ends. As the spermatogonia mature a covering is secreted around them. Eventually they enter a storage area (seminal vesicle). The terminal portion of the male system is an ejaculatory duct that passes through a copulatory organ. A pair of accessory glands, often associated with the ejaculatory duct, contributes to the semen (fluid containing sperm) or participates in spermatophore formation. The ninth body segment and sometimes the tenth bear appendages for sperm transfer. Scorpions (scorpion) and spiders (spider) have tubular or saclike gonads; the female system is equipped to receive and store sperm, and, in some species, the female retains the eggs long after fertilization has occurred. Male spiders may have a cluster of accessory glands associated with the terminal portion of the reproductive system for the manufacture of spermatophores, or they may have expanded seminal vesicles for the retention of sperm until copulation takes place. Often specific appendages are adapted for sperm transfer.

Echinoderms (echinoderm) and protochordates (protochordate)

      Echinoderms (e.g., sea urchins), hemichordates (including acornworms), urochordates (e.g., sea squirts), and cephalochordates (amphioxus) are restricted to a marine habitat. As with many other marine animals, their gametes are shed into the water. In echinoderms, the gonads are generally suspended from the arms directly into the sea; with few exceptions, the sexes are separate. Female starfishes (sea star) have been known to release as many as 2,500,000 eggs in two hours; 200,000,000 may be shed in a season. Males produce many times that number of sperm. Acornworms (acorn worm) reproduce only sexually, and the sexes are generally separate. The gonads lie on each side of the gut as a paired series of simple or lobed sacs. Each opens to the exterior, either directly or via a short duct. The eggs, when shed, are in coiled mucous masses, each of which contains 2,500 to 3,000 eggs.

      In urochordates and cephalochordates the gonads develop in the wall of a cavity (atrium) that receives respiratory water after it passes over the gills. Gametes are released into the cavity, then carried into the sea by the water flowing from the cavity. Most urochordates are hermaphroditic. One ovary and one testis may lie side by side, each with its own duct to the atrium; some species have many pairs of ovaries and testes. The eggs develop in so-called ovarian follicles consisting of two layers of cells, as in many vertebrates. The inner layer remains with the ovulated, or shed, egg, and the cells become filled with air spaces, which apparently help the eggs to float. amphioxus, the highest animals lacking vertebral columns, are dioecious. They have 24 or more pairs of ovaries or testes lacking ducts. When ripe, the gonads rupture, spilling their gametes directly into the atrium.

Mechanisms that aid in the union of gametes

Sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, and aschelminthes (aschelminth)

      The processes of sperm transfer and fertilization have been documented for only a few species of sponges. Flagellated (i.e., bearing a whiplike strand) sperm are released from the male gonad and swept out of the body and into the water by way of an elaborate system of canals. A sperm that enters another sponge, or the one from which it was released, is captured by a flagellated collar cell (choanocyte). The choanocyte completely engulfs the sperm, loses its collar and flagellum (or “whip”), and migrates to deeper tissue where the egg has matured. The choanocyte containing the sperm cell fuses with the egg, thus achieving fertilization. In freshwater coelenterates, sperm are also released into the water and carried by currents to another individual. Unlike the mechanism in sponges, however, coelenterate eggs arise in the epidermis, or surface tissue, and are exposed to sperm that may be nearby in the water; thus, no intermediate transport cell is needed. Many species of marine coelenterates expel both sperm and eggs into the water, and fertilization takes place there. Some medusoid coelenterates (jellyfish), however, offer some protection to the egg. After leaving the gonad, the egg becomes temporarily lodged in the epidermis on the underside of the organism, where fertilization and early development occur.

      In all flatworms, fertilization is internal. Among species with no female duct, sperm are injected, and fertilization occurs in the inner layer of tissue. Most flatworms, however, have an elaborate system of male and female ducts. Generally, the male gonoduct passes through a penis-like organ, and sperm are transferred during copulation. In parasitic species, which often cannot find a mate, self-fertilization serves as the means for reproduction. Sperm and ova unite in the oviduct, which then secretes yolk around the zygote.

      Male nematodes (roundworms) are usually equipped with a pair of copulatory structures (spicules) that guide the sperm during copulation. The posterior end of some males also exhibits a lateral (sideward) expansion (copulatory bursa) that clasps the female during copulation. Other males loop their tail around the female in the region of her gonopore. Unlike many other aschelminthes, nematodes have sperm cells that are amoeboid; i.e., their cell contents seem to flow. Some male rotifers have a copulatory organ.

Annelids and mollusks

      In some species of annelid polychaetes (polychaete) (marine worms) reproductive activity is synchronized with lunar cycles. At breeding time the body of both sexes differentiates into two regions, an anterior atoke and a posterior epitoke, in which gonads develop. When the moon is in a specific phase, the epitoke separates from the rest of the body and swims to the surface. The female epitoke apparently stimulates the male epitoke to release sperm, and sperm release, in turn, evokes expulsion of eggs. Fertilization is external. So well coordinated is this phenomenon that tremendous numbers of epitokes appear on the surface at about the same time.

      Sexually mature oligochaetes (oligochaete) have a clitellum, which is a modification of a section of the body wall consisting of a glandular, saddlelike thickening near the gonopores. During copulation, the clitellum secretes a mucus that keeps the worms paired while sperm are being exchanged. Following copulation, the clitellum secretes substance for a cocoon, which encircles the worm and into which eggs and sperm are deposited. The worm then manipulates the cocoon until it slips off over the head. Thereupon, the ends of the cocoon become sealed, and fertilization and development take place inside. Many leeches also form a cocoon; but the males of some species have a penis that can be inserted into the female gonopore. In other leeches, a spermatophore is thrust into the body of the mate during copulation.

      Union of gametes among mollusks is effected in a number of ways. Marine pelecypods synchronously discharge sperm and eggs into the sea; some freshwater clams are apparently self-fertilizing. One of the more unusual types of reproductive diversity occurs in marine gastropods of the family Scalidae that produce two kinds of sperm cells. A large sperm with a degenerate nucleus acts as a transport cell for carrying numerous small fertilizing sperm through the water and into the oviduct of another individual. Cephalopod males have modified arms for the transfer of spermatophores. The right or left fourth arm of the squid, for example, is so modified. Following an often elaborate courtship, the male squid uses the modified appendage to remove spermatophores from their storage place in his body and place them in the mantle cavity of the female. A cementing substance, which is released from the spermatophore, firmly attaches the spermatophore to the female's body near the oviduct. In some species, the male loses the arm. Manipulation of the eggs by the female's arms may also occur.

      Some unusual behaviour patterns have evolved in conjunction with sperm transfer in mollusks. Prior to copulation of certain land snails (land snail), a dart composed of calcium carbonate is propelled forcefully from the gonopore of each of the mating individuals and lodges in the viscera of the mate. Even though the snails have assumed a mating posture, sperm transfer cannot occur until each snail has been stimulated by a dart.

Arthropods

      Arthropods are as varied as mollusks in their methods of effecting union of sperm and eggs. They have relatively few devices for sperm transfer, but many display a high degree of behavioral complexity.

      The male and female scorpion participate in a courtship ritual involving complicated manoeuvres. In some species the male produces spermatophores that are anchored to the ground. In the course of the ritual dance the female is positioned over the spermatophore. The male then presses her down until the sperm packet is forced into her genital chamber, where it becomes attached by means of small hooks. Thus, ultimately, fertilization takes place internally.

      Among some spiders (spider) the male's pedipalp, a grasping or crushing appendage, contains a bulb and an extensible, coiled structure (embolus). As mating begins, the male dips the pedipalp into semen from his gonopore. The embolus is then placed in the female gonopore, and the sperm are transferred to her seminal receptacle. The female deposits the sperm along with her eggs into a silken cocoon, which she attaches to her body or to an object such as a rock or a leaf.

      Sperm transfer in copepods (copepod), isopods, and many decapods, often preceded by courtship, is effected by modified appendages, gonopods, or spermatophores. Copepods clasp the female with their antennae while placing a spermatophore at the opening of the seminal receptacle. In some decapods fertilization occurs as eggs are being released into the water.

      Fertilization among insects is always internal; there is much variation in the manner in which sperm are transferred to the female. Males of some species form spermatophores that are deposited in a copulatory bursa (vagina) of the female; the wall of the spermatophore breaks down, and the sperm swim to the seminal receptacle. In other species, sperm are introduced directly into the seminal receptacle by an intromittent organ. In still others, sperm, but no spermatophores, are deposited in the copulatory bursa and migrate to the seminal receptacle. In all instances, sperm are retained in the seminal receptacle until after fertilization. An exception to the usual route of sperm transfer occurs in insects that inject sperm into the female's hemocoel (i.e., the space between the body organs). The sperm then migrate to the ovary and oviduct and unite with eggs before the eggshell is formed.

parthenogenesis

      Most frequently, parthenogenesis is the development of a new individual from an unfertilized gamete. Often referred to as unisexual reproduction, it has been observed in almost every major invertebrate group, with the exception of protochordates (including hemichordates), and frequently occurs alternately with bisexual reproduction (reproduction by union of gametes). Some species, in which males are completely unknown, apparently reproduce only by parthenogenesis. Species that alternate between parthenogenesis and bisexual reproduction (heterogenetic species) often do so in response to changes in population density, food availability, or other environmental conditions.

      The best known examples of parthenogenetic reproduction are found among rotifers (rotifer). Males are completely unknown in some genera; in others, they appear in the population only for brief periods and more or less seasonally. Females are the dominant form or are the only sex present in a population throughout most of the year. Because no reductional division (meiosis) occurs in the course of egg maturation, the eggs are diploid—thatis, they have the full number of chromosomes; they give rise to new diploid individuals with no chromosomal contribution from a male gamete (diploid parthenogenesis). Even if males were present, sperm could not fertilize the eggs because the latter are already diploid. Under conditions of environmental stress such as seasonal changes, some females form eggs that undergo reductional division, resulting in eggs with the haploid number of chromosomes; such eggs must be fertilized by a male gamete to produce a new female. When the new individual matures, it will probably reproduce parthenogenetically. If, however, there are no males in the population, the haploid eggs can develop into haploid males (haploid parthenogenesis), which then participate in bisexual reproduction. Bisexually produced eggs are often referred to as winter eggs since they have a thick covering that protects the embryo during adverse environmental conditions. Summer eggs, produced parthenogenetically, are thin shelled. Bisexual reproduction occurs, therefore, only often enough to ensure survival of the species.

      Nematodes, especially free-living species such as some dioecious soil nematodes, exhibit a type of parthenogenesis known as gynogenesis. In this type of reproduction, the sperm produced by males do not unite with the haploid female egg but merely activate it to begin development. The result is haploid females.

      Parthenogenesis, which apparently occurs only rarely in the annelids and mollusks, is found more frequently among the arthropods. The cladocerans (e.g., water fleas), for example, have a reproductive cycle much like that of rotifers—so long as environmental conditions are optimal and food is plentiful, females produce other females by diploid parthenogenesis. When conditions become adverse, males begin to appear in the population, and bisexual reproduction follows. The precise trigger for the appearance of males is not yet known. Fertilized eggs, covered with a highly resistant case, enter a resting stage (ephippium) and can withstand severe temperatures and drying out. The return of favourable conditions leads to the emergence of females that reproduce parthenogenetically. The ability to form a resting stage regulates population density. Whenever the food supply becomes short because of overpopulation by parthenogenetic females, bisexual reproduction is induced, and a dormant stage ensues. During periods of food shortage, the excess females die from lack of food, but the ephippia remain to restore the population.

      Insects provide numerous examples of parthenogenesis of varying degrees of complexity. One of the most notable is that of the honeybee. Unfertilized eggs develop into drones, which are males. Fertilized eggs become worker females, which are kept in a nonreproductive state by secretions from the reproductive female, the queen bee.

      Life cycles involving alternation between parthenogenesis and bisexual reproduction can be found in many species of Homoptera and Diptera (flies). Aphids (Homoptera) have a seasonal cycle consisting of a bisexual winter phase and a parthenogenetic summer phase; some species spend each phase on a different host plant. Temperature change, length of day, and food availability play major roles in initiating the phases. In the midge, a type of fly, the bisexual phase occurs in adults, and parthenogenesis takes place among the larvae (paedogenesis). Adult female midges deposit fertilized eggs, from which hatch larvae whose ovaries develop while the rest of the body retains a larval form. The ovaries of the larvae release eggs that enter the larval hemocoel (the space between body organs), where they undergo development while feeding on larval tissue. When sufficiently developed, the parthenogenetically produced young emerge either as larvae that continue parthenogenetic reproduction, forming larvae like themselves, or as male or female larvae that mature to become bisexually reproducing adults.

Provisions for the developing embryo

      Invertebrates have developed a great many methods for protecting the fertilized egg and young embryo and for providing nutrients for the developing young. This is especially true of freshwater and terrestrial forms. Sponges (sponge) and freshwater coelenterates (cnidarian), exposed to seasonal drying out, provide a tough covering for the eggs that prevents water loss. Many turbellarians envelop the eggs with a capsule and attach it to a hard surface, where it remains until the young emerge. Other turbellarians retain encapsulated eggs in the body until development is complete and the young emerge. All parasitic flatworms (flatworm) enclose their eggs in a protective capsule within which development occurs after it has left the parent's body. Most nematodes (nematode) and rotifers do likewise, but a few species are ovoviviparous; i.e., the egg hatches in the mother's body. In many forms the amount of yolk provided in the egg and the nature of the egg capsule are correlated with annual seasons—summer eggs generally have less yolk and thinner capsules than do winter eggs. This is true also in a number of crustaceans. Freshwater and terrestrial annelids (annelid) provide a cocoon for their young and often deposit it in a moist place. One group of leeches (leech), however, does not form a cocoon; instead, the egg, surrounded by a protective membrane, is attached to the underside of the parent. As the young develop, the adult leech undulates its body so that water currents flow over the young. Presumably this serves as a means of aeration. Mollusks (mollusk) that live in freshwater may provide a protective covering for the eggs, or the eggs may be brooded by the female. Some pelecypods (bivalves (bivalve)) release mature eggs into their gill chambers; here the eggs are fertilized, and embryonic development is completed in a protected location. Cephalopods (e.g., squid, octopus) attach the eggs to a surface, then continuously force jets of water over the egg masses, thereby keeping them free of debris and perhaps aerating them. Some echinoderms (echinoderm) also brood the eggs until the young emerge.

      Arthropods have a particularly wide range of methods for ensuring offspring survival. Brood pouches, common in branchiopods, isopods, and amphipods, are sometimes part of the carapace, or back plate. In other instances, expanded plates on the lower side (sternum) form the pouches. Crayfish cement the fertilized eggs to their swimmerets (modified appendages) and carry them about as they are brooded by the female. The most elaborate provisions for the embryo are found among terrestrial arthropods (arthropod), especially insects. Although some species simply deposit their eggs and abandon them, many retain the encapsulated egg within the body during early development. Some are viviparous; that is, they bear living young. The eggs of certain species of scorpions have little or no yolk; the embryo is nourished by the parent in a manner similar to that in mammals—part of the scorpion oviduct becomes modified as a uterus for the embryo; another part lies close to the female's gut and absorbs nutritive substances that are conveyed to the developing young. A similar arrangement has evolved in some insects. Other viviparous insects nourish the larvae by glandular secretions from the uterine lining.

Reproductive systems of vertebrates (vertebrate)

Gonads, associated structures, and products

      The reproductive organs of vertebrates consist of gonads and associated ducts and glands. In addition, some vertebrates, including some of the more primitive fishes, have organs for sperm transfer or ovipository (egg-laying) organs. Gonads produce the gametes and hormones essential for reproduction. Associated ducts and glands store and transport the gametes and secrete necessary substances. In addition to these structures, most male and female vertebrates have a cloaca, a cavity that serves as a common terminal chamber for the digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts and empties to the outside. In lampreys and most ray-finned fishes in which the cloaca is small or absent, the alimentary canal has a separate external opening, the anus. In some teleosts (teleost) the alimentary, genital, and urinary tracts open independently. Hagfishes, which are closely related to the lampreys, have a short cloaca. In many vertebrates other than mammals, especially reptiles (reptile) and birds, the cephalic, or head, end of the cloaca is partitioned by folds into a urinogenital chamber (urodeum) and an alimentary chamber (coprodeum) that open into a common terminal chamber (proctodeum). Above monotremes (e.g., platypus, echidna) the embryonic cloaca becomes completely partitioned into a urinogenital sinus conveying urine and the products of the gonads, and an alimentary pathway; the two open independently to the exterior.

      Gonads arise as a pair of longitudinal thickenings of the coelomic epithelium and underlying mesenchyme (unspecialized tissue) on either side of the attachment of a supporting membrane, the dorsal mesentery, to the body wall. At first, gonadal ridges bulge into the coelom and are continuous with the embryonic kidney. The germinal epithelium covering the gonadal ridges gives rise to primary sex cords (medullary cords) that invade the underlying mesenchyme. These cords establish within the gonadal blastema (a tissue mass that gives rise to an organ) a potentially male component, the medulla. Secondary sex cords grow inward, spreading just beneath the germinal epithelium to form a cortex. If the gonad is to become a testis, only the medullary component differentiates. If the gonad is to become an ovary, only the cortex differentiates.

      The length of an adult gonad depends, in part, upon the extent of gonadal-ridge differentiation. In cyclostomes (lampreys and hagfish), elasmobranchs (sharks (shark), skates, and rays), and teleosts most of it differentiates, and the gonads extend nearly the length of the body trunk. In tetrapods (amphibians (amphibian), reptiles, birds, and mammals (mammal)), the cranial portion, at the anterior end, generally does not differentiate; in toads only the more caudal, or posterior, portion does so. The middle segment in toads (toad) of both sexes gives rise to a Bidder's organ containing immature eggs. In anurans (Anura) (frogs (frog) and toads) and some lizards (lizard) of both sexes, one segment of the gonadal ridge gives rise to yellow fat bodies that, especially in anurans, diminish in size just prior to the breeding season. In mammals, only the middle portion of the gonadal ridge differentiates.

      Some vertebrate species have only one gonad, which may lie in the midline or on one side; the condition is more common among females. Adult cyclostomes of both sexes have one gonad. In lampreys it is in the middle of the body; in hagfishes it is on the right side. Birds are the only other major group of vertebrates in which most females have one gonad, the right ovary being typically absent. Male birds have a pair of testes, however. Exceptions to the condition of single ovaries among birds include members of the falcon family, in which more than 50 percent of mature hawks have two well-developed ovaries. In all bird species a small percentage of females probably have two ovaries; reported instances include owls, parrots, sparrows, and doves, with estimates for doves ranging from 5 percent to 25 percent. A few teleosts and viviparous elasmobranchs have only one ovary; in sharks the right one is usually present, in rays, the left. In amniotes (i.e., reptiles, birds, and mammals) unpaired gonads are unusual. Some lizards have one testis, and some female crocodiles have one ovary. Among mammals, the platypus usually has only a left ovary, and some bat species (family Vespertilionidae) have only the right.

      One of two explanations may account for unpaired gonads: the paired embryonic gonadal ridges may fuse to form a median gonad—as in lampreys and the perch—or only one gonadal ridge may receive immigrating primordial germ cells (immature sperm or eggs), with the result that the opposite gonad does not develop—as in chickens and ducks. Both gonadal ridges have been reported to exhibit an equal number of primordial germ cells in embryonic hawks, and these typically have two ovaries.

      Among lower vertebrates, mature gonads sometimes produce both sperm and eggs. Hermaphroditism is more general in cyclostomes and teleosts than in other fishes. A teleost may function as a male during the early part of its sexual life and as a female later. In some teleost families sperm and eggs mature simultaneously but in different regions of the gonad. These fish normally function as males during one season and as females the next. Cyclostomes generally are ambisexual during juvenile life—i.e., immature male and female sex cells exist side by side, or, as in Myxine, the anterior part of the immature gonad may be ovary and the caudal part, the testis. It is thought that cyclostomes normally become unisexual at maturity. Hermaphroditism is uncommon among amphibians, although it frequently occurs as an anomaly. In vertebrates above amphibians, true hermaphroditism probably does not exist.

      Both male and female duct systems are occasionally absent. In cyclostomes, a few elasmobranchs, and some teleosts, such as salmon, trout, and eels, the gametes are propelled toward the posterior within the coelom, often by cilia (minute hairlike structures), and exit via a pair of funnel-like genital pores near the base of the tail. In cyclostomes, the pores lead to a sinus, or cavity, within a median papilla (i.e., a fingerlike structure) and are open only during breeding seasons.

Male systems

Testes

      In anurans, amniotes (reptiles, birds, and mammals), and even some teleosts, testes are composed largely of seminiferous tubules—coiled tubes, the walls of which contain cells that produce sperm—and are surrounded by a capsule, the tunica albuginea. Seminiferous tubules may constitute up to 90 percent of the testis. The tubule walls consist of a multilayered germinal epithelium containing spermatogenic cells and Sertoli cells, nutritive cells that have the heads of maturing sperm embedded in them. Seminiferous tubules may begin blindly at the tunic, or outermost tissue layer, and pass toward the centre, becoming tortuous before emptying into a system of collecting tubules, the rete testis. Such an arrangement is characteristic of frogs. In certain amniotes—the rat, for example—the tubules may be open ended, running a zigzag course from the rete to the periphery and back again. The average length of such tubules is 30 centimetres (12 inches), and they seldom communicate with each other. In many mammals the tubules are grouped into lobules separated by connective-tissue septa, or walls. The arrangement permits the packing of an extensive amount of germinal epithelium into a small space. In immature males and in adult males between breeding seasons, the tubules are inconspicuous and the epithelium is inactive; in some species, however, spermatogenesis, or production of sperm, proceeds at a variable pace throughout the year. An active epithelium may exhibit all stages of developing sperm. The lumen, or tubule cavity, contains the tails of many sperm (the heads of which are embedded in Sertoli cells), free sperm, and fluid that is probably resorbed. In mammals, in any single zone along a tubule, all sperm are at the same stage of maturation; adjacent zones contain different generations of sperm, and a period of sperm formation and discharge is followed by an interval of inactivity.

      In cyclostomes, most fishes, and tailed amphibians the germinal epithelium is arranged differently. Instead of seminiferous tubules there are large numbers of spermatogonial cysts (also called spermatocysts, sperm follicles, ampullae, crypts, sacs, acini, and capsules) in which sperm develop, but in which the epithelium is not germinal. Spermatogenic cells migrate into the cysts from a permanent germinal layer, which, depending on the species, may lie among cysts at the periphery of the testes or in a ridge along one margin of the testis. After invading the thin nongerminal epithelium of a cyst, spermatogenic cells multiply, producing enormous numbers of sperm. The cysts become greatly swollen and whitish in colour; the entire testis also swells and has a granular appearance. As sperm mature, they separate from the epithelium and move freely in the cystic fluid. Finally, the cysts burst, and the sperm are shed into ducts. In the case of cyclostomes and a few teleosts the sperm are shed into the coelom. The cysts, totally emptied, collapse. Then either they are replaced by new ones, or they become repopulated by additional spermatogenic cells. It is not yet known which of these processes occurs.

      Testicular stroma, which fills the spaces between seminiferous tubules or spermatogenic cysts, consists chiefly of connective tissue, blood and lymphatic vessels, and nerves; it is more abundant in some vertebrates than in others. Glandular Leydig (interstitial) cells are also present in most, if not all, vertebrates. Thought to be a primary source of androgens (androgen), or male hormones, Leydig cells are not always readily distinguishable, and, in some bird species, they may be seen only with the electron microscope. The capillary system of the rat testis, and probably that of many other vertebrates, is such that blood that has bathed the Leydig cells flows to the tubules; it is thus probable that Leydig cell hormones have an immediate effect on the germinal epithelium.

      Testes in vertebrates below mammals lie within the body. This is also true of many, sometimes all, members of the mammalian orders Monotremata, Insectivora, Hyracoidea, Edentata, Sirenia, Cetacea, and Proboscidea. Some male mammals—most marsupials, ungulates, carnivores, and primates after infancy—have a special pouch ( scrotum) that the testes occupy permanently. A few mammals have a pouch into which the testes descend and from which they can be retracted by muscular action. These include a few rodents such as ground squirrels; most, if not all, bats; and some primitive primates (loris, potto). The scrotum consists of two scrotal sacs, each connected to the abdominal cavity by an inguinal canal lined with the peritoneal membrane. The canals are the path of descent (and retraction) of the testes to the sacs. In descending, the testes carry along a spermatic duct, blood and lymphatic vessels, and a nerve supply wrapped in peritoneum and constituting, collectively, the spermatic cord. Rabbits, most rodents, and some insectivores, which lack scrotal sacs, have instead a wide inguinal canal into which the testes may be drawn and from which they are retracted when in danger of injury. In these mammals, descended testes cause a temporary bulge in the perineal region (i.e., between the anus and the urinogenital opening). In a small number of mammals, the testes permanently occupy the perineal location.

      The scrotum is a temperature-regulating device. Warm blood approaching the testis comes close to the vessels carrying cool blood leaving the testis, so that the blood approaching the testis is cooled; the vessels form an intricate vascular network (pampiniform plexus) within the spermatic cord. Failure of both testes to enter the scrotal sacs (cryptorchidism) results in permanent sterility. In cold weather two sets of muscles, the dartos and cremasteric, pull the testes close to the body. The dartos lies between the two scrotal sacs and is attached to the scrotal skin. The cremaster, wrapped around the spermatic cord, is an extension of the abdominal wall musculature. It retracts the testis. Birds, like mammals, are homoiothermic (warm-blooded), and their testes are near air sacs (extensions of incurrent respiratory tubes). Air in the sacs may help regulate the temperature of the testes.

Ducts

      The male duct system begins as the rete testis, a network within the testis of thin-walled ductules, or minute ducts, that collects sperm from the seminiferous tubules. The rete is drained by a number of small ducts—usually fewer than ten—called the vasa efferentia, which are modified kidney tubules. In some fishes and amphibians the vasa efferentia connect the testes (testis) with the cranial (anterior) end of the kidneys. In anamniotes (e.g., fish and amphibians), therefore, except teleosts, the ducts that drain the kidneys usually drain the testes also. In most amphibians these ducts pass caudad, or posteriorly, to empty independently into the cloaca; in some fishes they pass through a median urinogenital papilla.

      Although drainage of the testis and the kidney by the same duct is a basic pattern, there has been a tendency in many vertebrates toward separate spermatic and urinary ducts. This tendency is manifested in one of two ways among anamniotes. In many sharks and in some amphibians (Plethodontidae, Salamandridae, Ambystomatidae), the embryonic kidney duct ultimately drains the testis, and one or more new ducts (ureters) drain the adult kidney. On the other hand, in the primitive fish Polypterus and in most teleosts, the embryonic kidney duct drains the adult kidney, and a new duct arises to drain the testis. Many degrees of separation of the two ducts occur in anamniotes, from the condition of the sturgeon, in which the spermatic duct unites with the urinary duct far toward the head, to the condition in Esox (a pike), in which spermatic and urinary ducts empty independently to the exterior.

      In amniotes, the mesonephric kidney is a temporary structure confined to the embryo, but the mesonephric duct persists in the adult male as a sperm duct (ductus deferens). A separate ureter drains the adult kidney. The spermatic and urinary ducts empty independently into the cloaca except in mammals above monotremes, in which they are confluent with the urethra. The epididymis (epididyme) of amniotes, a highly tortuous duct draining the vasa efferentia, usually serves as a temporary storage place for sperm; it is small in birds and large in turtles. In mammals, the first part of the epididymis consists of a head, body, and tail that wrap around the testis; it gradually straightens to become the spermatic duct. The epididymis secretes substances that prolong the life of stored sperm and increase their capacity for motility.

      In all vertebrates certain regions of the spermatic duct are lined by cilia and a variety of secretory epithelial cells. One end may enlarge to form a sperm reservoir or secrete seminal fluid (semen). In the catfish Trachycorystes mirabilis secretions of the spermatic duct form a gelatinous plug in the female similar to the vaginal plug of mammals. A seminal glomulus in birds functions as a sperm reservoir. In some mammals an enlargement of the spermatic duct called the ampulla contributes to the seminal fluid and stores sperm. Small mucous glands (of Littré) and other glandular structures open into the urethra along its length. Cloacal glands in basking sharks and many salamanders form a jelly that encloses sperm in a spermatophore. Cloacal glands of some lizards produce secretions called pheromones. The siphon sac of elasmobranchs is one of the few accessory sex glands that is a separate organ in animals below mammals. It extends as an elongated pocket into the pelvic fin and secretes a nutritive mucus that enters the female reproductive tract with sperm.

Accessory glands

      Accessory sex glands that are conspicuous outgrowths of the genital tract are almost uniquely mammalian. The major mammalian sex glands include the prostate (prostate gland), the bulbourethral (bulbourethral gland), and the ampullary glands, and the seminal vesicles (seminal vesicle). All are outgrowths of the spermatic duct or of the urethra and all four occur in elephants and horses and in most moles, bats, rodents, rabbits, cattle, and primates. A few members of these groups lack ampullary glands, or ampullary glands and seminal vesicles. Cetaceans (whales, porpoises) have only the prostate, as do some carnivores, including dogs, weasels, ferrets, and bears.

      The prostate, the most widely distributed mammalian accessory sex gland, is absent only in Echidna (a marsupial) and a few carnivores. It empties into the urethra by multiple ducts. Many rodents, insectivores, and lagomorphs have three separate prostatic lobes; in a few mammals (some primates and carnivores) the prostate is a single mass with lobules and encircles the urethra at the base of the bladder. In a few mammals (e.g., opossum), the prostate is not a compact mass but a partly diffuse gland. In many rodents (e.g., rat, guinea pig, mouse, hamster) and some other mammals, the semen coagulates quickly after ejaculation as a result of a secretion from a male coagulating gland, which is usually considered part of the prostatic mass. Coagulated semen forms a vaginal plug that temporarily prevents copulation.

      Bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands arise from the urethra near the penis and are surrounded by the muscle of the urethra or penis. Typically, there is one pair, but as many as three (marsupials) may be found. The glands, small in man, large in rodents, elephants, and some ungulates including pigs, camels, and horses, are absent in cetaceans, mustelids (e.g., mink, weasel), sirenians (manatees, dugongs), pholidotans (pangolins), some edentates, and carnivores such as walrus, sea lion, bear, and dog.

      Although many mammals have an ampullary swelling on the spermatic duct near the urethra, only a small number form a separate ampullary gland as an outgrowth of the duct. It is very large in some bats, absent in many mammalian orders, and variable in the rest. Although common in rodents, it is absent in guinea pigs and some strains of mice.

      Seminal vesicles are paired, typically elongated and coiled fibromuscular sacs that empty into either the spermatic duct or the urethra. Absent in monotremes, marsupials, carnivores, cetaceans, and in some insectivores, chiropterans, and primates, seminal vesicles are exceptionally large in rhesus monkeys and small in man. They are absent in domesticated rabbits, small or rudimentary in cottontails, large in armadillos, and variable in sloths. They contribute the sugar fructose and citric acid to the semen but do not serve as sperm reservoirs.

Female systems

Ovaries

      Ovaries lie within the body cavity and are suspended by a dorsal mesentery (mesovarium), through which pass blood and lymph vessels and nerves. Primitive vertebrate ovaries occur in the hagfish, in which a mesentery-like fold of gonadal tissue stretches nearly the length of the body cavity. Unique in the hagfish is the fact that functional ovarian tissue occupies only the forward half of the gonadal mass, the rear part containing rudimentary testicular tissue. In most fishes except very primitive forms, the ovaries are similarly elongated. In tetrapods other than mammals, the ovaries are usually confined to the middle third or half of the body cavity, particularly during nonbreeding seasons. The ovaries of mammals undergo moderate caudal displacement, finally coming to lie between the kidney and the pelvis.

      The appearance of an ovary depends on many factors—e.g., whether one egg or thousands are discharged (ovulated); whether the eggs are immature or ripe; whether mature eggs are small or large; or whether pigments occur in the egg cytoplasm, such as those responsible for yellow yolk. Other factors also affect the appearance of the ovary: the season of the year in seasonal breeders (the ovary enlarges during breeding seasons, diminishes in size between seasons); the age of the animal (whether juvenile, reproductively active, or senile, particularly in birds and mammals); and the fate of ovulated, or discharged, egg follicles, or sacs.

      The ovaries are covered with a germinal epithelium that is continuous with the peritoneum lining the body cavity. The term germinal epithelium is inappropriate because in most adults it contains no germ cells, these having moved deeper into the ovary. In hagfishes and amphibians, cells that give rise to eggs are known to occur in the germinal epithelium, and it may be that the germinal epithelium in a few other vertebrates contains similar cells. The germinal epithelium undergoes cell division, however. This is particularly true of species in which enormous expansion of the ovary occurs each breeding season. Beneath the epithelium is a layer of connective tissue, the tunica albuginea, which is much thinner than that surrounding the testes.

      A typical vertebrate ovary consists of cortex and medulla. The cortex, immediately internal to the tunica albuginea, contains future eggs and, at one time or another, eggs in ovarian follicles (i.e., developing eggs); it undergoes fluctuations in size and appearance that correlate with stages of the reproductive cycle. The cortex also contains remnants of ovulated follicles and, in mammals, clusters of interstitial cells that, in some species, are glandular. The cortical components are embedded in a supportive framework of connective, vascular, and neural tissue constituting the stroma. Internal to the cortex is the medulla, consisting of blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and connective tissue. The medulla, which contains no germinal elements, exhibits no significant cyclical activity, is usually inconspicuous, is continuous with the dorsal mesentery, and, in cyclostomes, is hardly distinguishable from the latter. The mammalian medulla, on the contrary, is almost completely surrounded by cortex and converges on the mesovarium (i.e., the part of the peritoneum that supports the ovary) at a narrow hilus, at which nerves and vessels enter the ovary. In the medulla of the mammalian ovary near the hilus are small masses of blind tubules or solid cords—the rete ovarii—which are homologous (i.e., of the same embryonic origin) with the rete testis in the male. The microscopic right ovary of birds usually consists only of medullary tissue.

      Ovaries are characterized as saccular, hollow, lacunate (i.e., compartmented), or compact. The ovary of many teleosts, especially viviparous ones, contains a permanent cavity, which is formed during ovarian development when an invagination of the ovarian surface traps a portion of the coelom. The cavity is therefore unique in that it is lined by germinal epithelium. The lining develops numerous ovigerous folds that project into the lumen and greatly increase the surface area for proliferation of eggs. In most other teleosts, a temporary ovarian cavity develops after each ovulation, when the shrinking cortex withdraws from the outside ovarian wall along one side of the ovary. The resulting cavity is obliterated as eggs of the next generation enlarge. The permanent and temporary cavities of teleost ovaries and a similar cavity in garfish ovaries are continuous with the lumen of the oviduct, and eggs are shed into them. The ovaries of other fishes lack cavities and are characterized as compact. The amphibian ovary, which contains six or more central, hollow sacs that give it a lobed appearance, is characterized as saccular. The sacs are formed when the embryonic medullary and rete cords become hollow and coalesce. Maturing eggs bulge into the sacs but are not shed into them. The ovaries of reptiles, birds, and monotremes have cavities homologous to those in amphibians; the number of medullary spaces in the adults is considerably larger, however, so that the ovaries contain an extensive network of fluid-filled cavities (lacunae). Such ovaries (ovum) are characterized as lacunate. The ovaries of mammals above monotremes are compact, having no medullary cavities.

      An ovarian follicle consists of an oocyte, or immature egg, surrounded by an epithelium, the cells of which are referred to variously as follicular, nurse, or granulosa cells. In cyclostomes, teleosts, and amphibians, the epithelium is one layer thick. In the hagfish and those vertebrates in which the oocyte receives heavy deposits of yolk (elasmobranchs, reptiles, birds, and monotremes), the epithelium appears to be two cells thick, apparently the result of layering of nuclei in a simple columnar epithelium (i.e., epithelium consisting of relatively “tall” cells). Above monotremes the follicular epithelium appears to be many cells thick; in at least one species, however, this is considered an artifact, and all granulosa cells are said to extend between the outer boundary of the epithelium and the oocyte.

      The follicular epithelium originates as a few flattened cells derived from the germinal epithelium. Primary follicles are usually situated just under the tunica albuginea; secondary follicles lie deeper in the cortex. The primitive role of the follicular cells appears to be the secretion of the yolk-forming material onto or into the oocyte. Evidence from mammals indicates that the follicular cells may also have a role in converting substances produced elsewhere into female hormones, or estrogens (estrogen). In some hibernating bats the granulosa cells are filled with glycogen, or animal starch, which may be a source of energy. Mammalian follicles above monotremes are unique in that they develop a fluid-filled cavity (antrum) within the granulosa layer. During antrum formation cell division of the granulosa cells increases, and fluid-filled spaces develop among the cells. The spaces coalesce to form the antrum. Under the influence of pituitary gonadotropic hormones, many antral follicles thereafter continue to grow, forming large so-called Graafian follicles—less than 400 microns, or 0.4 millimetre (0.16 inch), in diameter in large mammals, 150–200 microns, or 0.15–0.2 millimetre (0.006–0.008 inch), in small ones. Graafian follicles contain mature eggs and appear as large blisters on the ovary. At this stage the ovum, suspended within the fluid of the antrum (liquor folliculi) by a slender stalk of granulosa cells, is surrounded by a cluster of these cells, the cumulus oophorus, or discus proligerus. The remaining follicular cells form a thin wall surrounding the antrum. Antra are lacking in a few insectivores (Hemicentetes, Euriculus) because the granulosa cells swell and multiply to form corpora lutea, masses of yellow tissue. In the bat Myotis the antrum is likewise compressed and disappears just before discharge of the egg, or ovulation.

      In all vertebrates, oocytes that have begun to grow and mature may, at any time until just before ovulation, cease development and undergo atresia, or degeneration. This is a normal process that reduces the number of eggs ovulated. In small laboratory rodents, atresia takes place in 50 percent of the Graafian follicles in each ovary one or two days before ovulation, thus reducing the number of ovulatable eggs by 50 percent. A similar reduction takes place in hagfish prior to ovulation. Atretic follicles eventually become lost in the stroma of the cortex of the ovary. In mammals especially, follicles lacking oocytes and antra, called anovular follicles, as well as polyovular follicles (i.e., containing more than one oocyte), occasionally occur.

      The ovarian follicle of vertebrates, commencing with hagfish, is surrounded by a theca, or sheath, composed of two concentric layers of stromal cells. The outer layer (theca externa) is chiefly connective tissue but may contain smooth muscle fibres. The inner layer (theca interna) has more blood vessels and, in vertebrates that produce heavily yolked eggs, the largest vessels carry venous blood. In these species the cell membranes of the oocyte and granulosa cells have many microvilli (i.e., fingerlike projections), which probably facilitate transport of substances important in yolk formation from the blood vessels to the egg. Mature follicles in the marsupial Dasyatus are said to lack theca, and in some bats only one thecal layer has been described.

      During the growth phase, eggs in species with massive amounts of yolk may increase in size 10⁶ (1,000,000) or more times as a result of vitellogenesis (deposit of yolk). In goldfish, on the other hand, when vitellogenesis commences, the egg has a diameter of 150 microns (0.15 millimetre [0.006 inch]); that of the mature egg is only 500 microns (0.5 millimetre [0.02 inch]). Mammalian eggs contain little yolk and vary little in size. Oogonia (i.e., cells that form oocytes) of the golden hamster average 15 microns (0.015 millimetre [0.0006 inch]) in diameter, and eggs in Graafian follicles average 70 microns (0.07 millimetre [0.003 inch]). The mature eggs of horses and humans are approximately the same size—somewhat less than 150 microns. In seasonally breeding oviparous fishes and amphibians, all eggs are usually in the same stage of development, and the ovary grows to a mature state quite rapidly as a result of growth of the eggs, which frequently number more than 1,000,000. Such ovaries distend the body wall when mature; following spawning, the ovaries shrink rapidly to inconspicuous bodies consisting mainly of oogonia, immature oocytes, and a few stromal cells. In reptiles and birds, ovarian weight also is high in proportion to body weight during egg-laying seasons. The weight of the ovary of the starling, for example, may increase from eight milligrams in early winter to 1,400 milligrams immediately before ovulation. The mature eggs of reptiles and birds are unique in that they are suspended from the ovary by a short stalk (pedicle). The stalk contains a cortex with additional oocytes in various stages of development and extensions of vessels and nerves. Full growth of the follicle in reptiles and birds requires only a few days or weeks (nine days in the domestic hen). In mammals, the ratio of ovarian weight to body weight varies insignificantly throughout the reproductive life of the female, and follicles in many stages of development are constantly present.

      Vertebrate eggs are almost universally shed into the coelom or into a subdivision thereof, from which they enter the female reproductive tract. Even in those teleosts in which the eggs are shed into an ovarian cavity, the latter is often of coelomic origin. In many mammals a membranous sac of peritoneum, the ovarian bursa, traps part of the coelom in a chamber along with the ovary. The bursal cavity (periovarian space) may be broadly open to the main coelom, completely closed off from the coelom, or in communication with the coelom by a narrow, slitlike passage. The bursa, moderately developed in lower primates and catarrhines (Old World monkeys), is poorly developed in man. In horses, one edge of the ovary contains a long groove (ovulation fossa) into which all eggs are shed; the groove is found in a cleftlike ovarian bursa. The ovarian bursa increases the probability that all ovulated eggs will enter the oviduct.

      The process of ovulation has been described for all vertebrate classes. Elasmobranchs, reptiles, and birds have massively yolked eggs. As ovulation approaches, the fimbria (i.e., frills, or fringes) of the membranous and muscular funnel surrounding the entrance to the oviduct wave in a gentle, undulating motion. An egg that is nearly free of the ovary is grasped and partially encompassed by the fimbria; when the egg is freed, the fimbria draw the egg into the funnel. At this time, the egg has little shape and is partly squirted and partly flows into the oviduct; never completely free in the coelom, its chances of not entering the oviduct are small. In the case of moderately or poorly yolked eggs cilia help to sweep the eggs into the ostium, or opening, of the oviduct. During ovulation in Japanese rice fish, Oryzias latipes, a tiny papilla, or fingerlike process, develops on the surface of a bulging mature follicle in the centre (stigma) of the follicle. The follicle becomes thin at the stigma, an aperture appears, and the egg rolls out. In rabbits this process differs only in detail. During the final 20 minutes before ovulation in rabbits, some of the tiny blood vessels surrounding the stigma rupture, and a small pool of blood forms under the apex of the cone-shaped papilla. The follicular wall shortly gives way at the apex, and follicular fluid oozes from the opening, followed soon after by the egg. The ovulated mammalian egg typically is surrounded by a layer of columnar follicular cells, the corona radiata; but it is naked in some insectivores and some marsupials. Following ovulation in all vertebrates, the ovary may become smaller, become modified for maintenance of pregnancy, or proceed to form additional eggs.

      The process of ovulation in vertebrates has been documented, but the immediate causes remain to be clarified. It is almost certain that an ovulatory hormone is secreted by the pituitary gland (i.e., the so-called master endocrine gland) of all vertebrates. It is highly probable that breakdown of very small fibres that bind the follicular cells together may occur at the stigma, weakening the follicular wall at that location. Hormones from the ovary and other sources may play a role, as may neurohormones, which are hormones released at nerve endings. Rhythmic contractions of the entire ovary occur at ovulation in many vertebrates and have been described in rabbits. The role of mechanical pressure within the follicle, however, is not understood. Ovulation in most mammals (spontaneous ovulators) occurs cyclically as a result of the spontaneous release of the ovulatory hormone. In a few mammals (reflex ovulators) the stimulus of copulation is essential for release of the ovulatory hormone.

      Striking postovulatory changes take place in the follicles of mammals and, to lesser degrees, of lower vertebrates. Blood vessels from the theca interna invade the ovulated follicles; the granulosa cells divide, enlarge, accumulate fats, and obliterate any remnants of the collapsed antra. Thereafter, they are known as lutein (luteinizing hormone) cells. Theca interna cells undergo changes identical to those of the granulosa cells. The result in mammals is the formation of solid masses called corpora lutea (corpus luteum), recognizable as prominent reddish-yellow bulges on the ovary. Corpora lutea produce the hormone progesterone, which is essential for the maintenance of pregnancy. The conversion of postovulatory follicles into structures more or less resembling mammalian corpora lutea has been demonstrated in numerous viviparous reptiles, amphibians, and elasmobranchs; in certain other fishes, including cyclostomes; and in some oviparous amphibians and reptiles. In birds, the postovulatory follicle shrinks, and identifiable corpora lutea do not develop, although some granulosa cells accumulate lipids of unknown significance.

Tracts

      The female reproductive tract consists of a pair of tubes (gonoducts) extending from anterior, funnel-like openings (ostia) to the cloaca, except as noted below. The gonoducts are specialized along their length for secretion of substances added to the eggs; for transport, storage, nutrition, and expulsion of eggs or the products of conception; and, in species with internal fertilization, for receipt, transport, storage, and nutrition of inseminated sperm. The predominately muscular tracts are lined by a secretory epithelium and ciliated over at least part of their length. Fusion of the caudal (tail) ends of the paired ducts may occur. Gonoducts are absent in cyclostomes and a few gnathostome fishes that have abdominal pores. A few vertebrates have only one functional gonoduct.

      Gonoducts in lungfishes and amphibians are coiled muscular tubes that are ciliated over most of their length. Only occasionally do they unite caudally in a genital papilla before opening into the cloaca. During breeding seasons their diameter increases severalfold because of the highly active secretory epithelium. Between breeding seasons they are small. In some anurans (frogs, toads), such as Rana, the lower end of each gonoduct is expanded to form an ovisac, in which ovulated eggs are stored until spawning; the tube between the ostium (funnel-like opening) and ovisac is the oviduct. In viviparous amphibians the young develop in the ovisac. In amphibians, numerous multicellular glands extend deep into the lining of the female tract. Six successive glandular zones have been described in some urodeles, and these secrete six different gelatinous substances upon the egg. Female urodeles often have convoluted tubular outpocketings of the cloaca called spermatheca; they temporarily store sperm liberated from the male spermatophore.

      The two gonoducts of elasmobranchs share a single ostium, a trait found only in Chondrichthyes. The ostium is a wide caudally directed funnel supported in the falciform ligament, which is attached to the liver. The role of the fimbria of the ostium at ovulation has been described (see above Ovaries (reproductive system, animal)). Two oviducts pass forward from the ostium to the septum transversum (i.e., between the heart and abdominal cavities), curve around one end of the liver, then pass posteriorly on each side. Approximately midway between ostium and uterus each oviduct has a shell (nidamental) gland. Fertilization takes place above the shell gland, which may be immense or almost undifferentiated. Half of the shell gland secretes a substance high in protein content (albumen), and the other half secretes the shell—delicate in viviparous forms, thick and horny in most oviparous species. Horny shells may have spiral ridges and many long tendrils, which entwine about an appropriate surface after the egg is deposited. In the viviparous shark Squalus acanthias several eggs pass one after the other through the shell gland, where they are enclosed in one long delicate membranous shell that soon disintegrates. Beyond the shell gland the oviducts terminate in an enlargement, which, in viviparous species, serves as a uterus. An oviducal valve may be found at the junction of oviduct and uterus. Although the two uteri usually open independently into the cloaca, they occasionally unite to form a bicornuate (two-horned) structure. In immature females, the uterus may be separated from the cloaca by a hymen, or membrane. The tract enlarges enormously during the first pregnancy and does not thereafter fully regress to its original size.

      The gonoducts of most lower ray-finned fishes resemble those of lungfish, but those of gars and teleosts are exceptional in that the oviducts are usually continuous with the ovarian cavities. A median genital papilla receives the oviducts in teleosts, and the papilla is sometimes elongated to form an ovipositor. European bitterlings deposit their eggs in a mussel by means of the ovipositor, and female pipefish and sea horses deposit them in the brood pouch of a male.

      With certain modifications, the gonoducts of reptiles and birds are comparable to those of lower vertebrates. Crocodilians, some lizards, and nearly all birds have one gonoduct; the other is not well developed. Even in birds of prey having two functional ovaries, the right oviduct is sometimes undeveloped. The tracts of reptiles generally show less regional differentiation than do those of birds. The oviduct funnel (ostium) in birds forms the chalazae—two coiled, springlike cords extending from the yolk to the ends of the egg. In both reptiles and birds, much of the length of the female tract is oviduct. This region, called the magnum in birds, secretes albumen; lizards and snakes do not form albumen (albumin). Behind the albumen-secreting region is a shell gland. In lizards, the gland is midway along the tract. In birds, the shell gland is at the posterior end, has thick muscular walls, and is often inappropriately called a uterus. It is preceded by a narrow region, or isthmus, which secretes the noncalcareous, or soft, membranes of the shell. The shell gland leads to a narrow muscular vagina that empties into the cloaca. The vagina secretes mucus that seals the pores of the shell before the egg is expelled. Special vaginal tubules (spermatheca) store sperm over winter in some snakes and lizards; seminal receptacles have been described in the oviduct funnel in some snakes. In birds, sperm storage glands (sperm nests) often occur in the funnel and at the uterovaginal junction. In lizards and birds, ovulation does not usually occur into a tract already containing an egg. Some lizards shed very few eggs per season; the gecko, for example, sheds only two.

      The female reproductive tracts of monotremes, the egg-laying mammals, consist of two oviducts, the lower ends of which are shell glands. These open into a urinogenital sinus, which, in turn, empties into a cloaca. Marsupials (marsupial) have two oviducts, two uteri (duplex uterus), and two vaginas. The upper parts of the vaginas unite to form a median vagina that may or may not be paired internally. Beyond the median vagina, the vaginas are again paired (lateral vaginas) and lead to a urinogenital sinus. The posterior end of the pouchlike median vagina is separated from the forward end of the urinogenital sinus by a partition. When the female is delivering young, the fetuses are usually forced through the partition and into the urinogenital sinus, bypassing the lateral vaginas. The ruptured partition may remain open thereafter, resulting in a pseudovagina. It closes in opossums, and in kangaroos both the median and lateral routes may serve as birth canals. The lateral vaginas in marsupials receive the forked tips of the male penis. Fertilization in all mammals takes place in the oviducts (Fallopian tubes).

      In eutherian mammals (i.e., all mammals except monotremes and marsupials), with exceptions noted below, female reproductive tracts beyond the ostia (oviduct funnels) consist of two narrow and somewhat tortuous Fallopian tubes (fallopian tube), two large uterine horns (each of which receives a Fallopian tube), a uterine body, and one vagina. Fallopian tubes often have a short dilated ampulla, or saclike swelling, just beyond the ostium. Implantation of the egg occurs only in the uterine horns; the embryos become spaced equidistant from one another in both horns even if only one ovary has ovulated. In some species one horn is rudimentary—the left in the impala (an African antelope)—and the embryos become implanted in the other horn, even though both ovaries ovulate. The body of the uterus in some mammals (e.g., rabbits, elephants, aardvarks; some rodents, bats, insectivores) contains two separate canals (bipartite uterus). In other mammals (ungulates, many cetaceans, most carnivores and bats) the body of the uterus has one chamber into which the two horns empty (bicornuate uterus). There are numerous intermediate conditions between the bipartite and bicornuate condition. Apes, monkeys, and man have no horns, and the Fallopian tubes empty directly into the body of the uterus (simplex uterus). In all mammals, the uterine body tapers to a narrow neck (cervix). The opening (os uteri) into the vagina is guarded by fleshy folds (lips of the cervix). The vagina in eutherian mammals other than rodents and primates terminates in a urinogenital sinus that opens to the exterior by a urinogenital aperture. In some rodents and in higher primates the vagina opens directly to the exterior. In the young of many species a membrane, the hymen, closes the vaginal opening. In guinea pigs the hymen reseals the opening after each reproductive period. Sperm are stored over winter in the uterus of some bats and in vaginal pouches in others.

Accessory glands

      Female mammals have fewer accessory sex glands than males, the most prominent being Bartholin's glands and prostates (prostate gland). Bartholin's (bulbovestibular) glands are homologues of the bulbourethral glands of males. One pair usually opens into the urinogenital sinus or, in primates, into a shallow vestibule at the opening of the vagina. Prostates develop as buds from the urethra in many female embryos but often remain partially developed. They become well developed, however, in some insectivores, chiropterans, rodents, and lagomorphs, although their function is obscure. A variety of glands (labial, preputial, urethral) are found in the mucosa, or mucous membrane. Glands in the uterine mucosa provide nourishment for embryos before implantation. Cervical uterine glands secrete mucus that lubricates the vagina, which has no glands.

Adaptations for internal fertilization

      Fertilization among vertebrates may be external or internal, but internal fertilization is not always correlated with viviparity or the presence of intromittent (copulatory) organs. The latter, uncommon among fishes, amphibians, and birds, are present in all reptiles (except Sphenodon) and mammals.

      A considerable number of fishes are viviparous; in them, fertilization is internal, and the males have intromittent organs. The claspers of most male elasmobranchs are usually paired extensions of pelvic fins that are inserted into the female's uterus for transfer of sperm. The clasper, supported by modified fin cartilages, contains a groove along which sperm are conveyed into the uterus and is raised, or erected, by muscles at its base. Gonopodia of male teleosts are fleshy, often elongated modifications of pelvic or anal fins that are directed posteriorly, have a genital pore at the end, and often serve as intromittent organs. In some teleosts, a large penis-like papilla located under the throat is supported by bones. The spermatic duct opens on one side of the papilla. In a few teleosts, hemal spines (ventral projections of vertebrae) form the skeleton of an intromittent organ. Occasionally, the intromittent organ is an asymmetrical tube that matches the asymmetrical genital opening of the female. Still other teleosts have uncomplicated fleshy genital papillae that can be erected. In at least one teleost species, the female has a copulatory organ that she inserts into the genital pore of the male for receiving sperm.

      Certain amphibians have internal fertilization but no intromittent organs. The muscular cloaca of the male caecilian, however, can be everted (turned outward) to protrude into that of the female. The male urodele deposits a spermatophore that the female picks up with the lips of her cloaca. Among anurans, Nectophrynoides (a viviparous frog) and Ascaphus (a toad) have internal fertilization, but only Ascaphus has an intromittent organ. It is a permanent tubular extension of the cloaca and resembles a tail. Other anurans have external fertilization and no intromittent organs.

      The provision of an eggshell in reptiles requires that fertilization be internal, and all reptiles have intromittent organs except Sphenodon. Reptilian intromittent organs are of two types. Crocodilians and chelonians (turtles) have a penis (phallus), a median thickening in the floor of the cloaca consisting of two cylinders of spongy vascular erectile tissue, the corpora spongiosa. The caudal tip of the penis protrudes into the cloaca as a genital tubercle, or glans penis. The penis is held in the cloacal floor by retractor muscles. When the blood vessels within the spongy bodies are filled with blood, the penis swells, the retractor muscle relaxes, and the genital tubercle protrudes from the vent to serve as an intromittent organ. A longitudinal groove on the surface of the penis directs the flow of sperm. When the spongy bodies are no longer filled with blood, the retractor muscle returns the penis to the cloacal floor. Snakes and lizards have hemipenes, paired elongated outpocketings of the caudal wall of the cloaca that extend under the skin at the base of the tail. Each hemipenis is held in place by a retractor muscle. During copulation the muscle relaxes, the pocket turns inside out and protrudes through the vent in an erect condition. Semen passes along grooves on its surface. Except in pythons, erectile tissue is lacking in hemipenes. Hemipenes protrude independently of each other and are often covered with spines. Very small hemipenes of unknown function are usually present in females.

      All birds have internal fertilization, although they are not viviparous; most lack intromittent organs. Male swans, ducks, geese, tinamous, ostriches, and some other ratites (flightless birds), however, have an erectile median penis like that of crocodiles and turtles. Chickens have an organ consisting of a small amount of erectile tissue, but lymph vessels, rather than blood vessels, become engorged. Some birds have a vestigial penis.

      All mammals have internal fertilization and an erectile penis. That of monotremes is of the reptilian type, nonprotrusible and in the cloacal floor. In higher mammals the penis has been modified. The groove on the surface of the embryonic penis becomes enclosed in a tube along with the corpus spongiosum and two additional erectile masses, the corpora cavernosa. The proximal ends (crura) of the corpora cavernosa are anchored laterally to the pubic and ischial bones by various muscles and constitute the root of the penis. The crura converge in the midline to enter the body of the penis, which also contains the urethra, surrounded by the corpus spongiosum. The latter begins on the pelvic floor as the bulb of the penis and contains a dilation of the urethra (urethral bulb). The body of the penis extends a variable distance beyond the body of the mammal, in contrast to the short genital tubercle of reptiles. Except in ruminants (i.e., cud-chewing animals, such as cattle and deer), cetaceans, and some rodents, the penis terminates in a glans penis, a swelling of the corpus spongiosum that caps the ends of the corpora cavernosa and contains the urinogenital aperture. The glans is supplied with nerve endings and is partly or wholly sheathed, except during erection, by a circular fold of skin, the prepuce. The inner surface of the prepuce is moistened by preputial glands, and the external surface is sometimes covered with spines or hard scales, as in the cat, guinea pig, and wombat. The glans penis of the male Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), the bandicoot, and some other species is bifid (i.e., with two equal tips), correlated with the paired vaginas of females. In boars, the glans penis is corkscrew-shaped, and in goats, rams, and many antelopes a urethral (vermiform) process of much smaller diameter extends three or four centimetres (about an inch to an inch and a half) beyond the glans. In some cattle, a sigmoid, or S-shaped, flexure bends the penis, which otherwise would be too long to fit into the preputial sac. The penis of marsupials is directed backward, and that of cats and rodents is directed backward, except during copulation. In some mammals (e.g., bats) it is pendulous; and in armadillos it may extend one third the length of the body during copulation.

      Erection of the mammalian penis is initiated typically by an increase in the volume of blood reaching the cavernous and spongy bodies, engorgement of the vessels, and consequent compression of the veins leaving the organ. When a retractor muscle is present (wolf, fox, dog), it relaxes as erection occurs. The amount of erectile tissue in bovines (cattle) is small, and the penis has much fibroelastic tissue. Erection in such species results primarily from relaxation of the retractor muscle, and vascular engorgement provides only rigidity. Among mechanisms that reverse the erectile state are disgorgement of blood from the cavernous spaces, elasticity of the walls of the spaces, and action of a retractor muscle. A penis bone ( baculum, os priapi) is present in various degrees of development in many mammals.

      Female mammals have an erectile penile organ known as the clitoris in the floor of the urinogenital sinus or vagina. In the young spider monkey Ateles, the clitoris is six or seven centimetres (2.4 to 2.8 inches) long. In a few mammals (some rodents, insectivores, lemurs, and hyenas (hyena)) the urethral canal becomes enclosed within the clitoris, as in males. In hyenas, the clitoris is large and often mistaken for a penis, and female scrotal pouches, lacking gonads, are present. So much do the male and female external genitalia resemble each other that the ancients regarded the hyena as a hermaphrodite. The clitoris of female mammals often contains cartilage or bone. A specialized clitoris is present in female turtles, crocodiles, alligators, and a few species of birds in which the male has a penis.

      The spermatic duct of male mammals between the seminal vesicle and the prostatic urethra has a heavy muscular coat and serves as an ejaculatory duct. In mammals in which the seminal vesicles empty directly into the urethra, the latter is ejaculatory. In birds, the terminal segments of the spermatic ducts are erectile and ejaculatory, and in fish the posterior end of whatever duct transports sperm may be ejaculatory (fertilization).

Role of gonads in hormone cycles

      Neurosecretions formed in the brain in response to environmental stimuli regulate the synthesis and release of hormones known as gonadotropins, which, in turn, stimulate the gonads. Cyclical intervals of illumination (photoperiods) may be the principal environmental factor regulating gonadal activity. Although cyclical temperature changes are experienced by many species, as are fluctuations in food supply, rainfall, and salinity, their precise effects and those of many other stimuli, independently or in combination, have not yet been defined for any species. Photoperiodicity, temperature, and perhaps all other cycles are attributable to the seasons, and to the 24-hour day.

      As a result of rhythmic stimulation by gonadotropins secreted by the pituitary gland, the gonads grow, mature, and produce gametes and hormones. Certain of these hormones, known as androgens (androgen), are thought to be produced chiefly by interstitial cells and are more abundant in males. Hormones known as estrogens are probably produced chiefly by ovarian follicles and their thecas. Circulating progestins are produced in greatest quantities by corpora lutea. Although the gonadal hormones of different species vary somewhat in structure, their effects are essentially the same. As the quantity of pituitary gonadotropins decreases, the activity of the gonads slows and may temporarily cease.

      The effects of gonadal hormones may be summarized as follows:

      Gonadal hormones induce growth of and maintain the cyclical function of the reproductive tracts, accessory sex glands, and copulatory or ovipository organs. They thereby provide for the storage, nutrition, and transport of gametes; the secretion of necessary substances onto the surface of gametes; and the ultimate extrusion of sperm, eggs, or the products of conception. In mammals, therefore, they prepare the vagina for copulation and the uterus for implantation of eggs; in addition, gonadal hormones maintain pregnancy until birth or until placental hormones can take over their function. The hormonal basis for the maintenance of viviparity in vertebrates below mammals is almost unknown.

      Gonadal hormones participate in the maturation of gametes (gamete) still in the gonads by augmenting the metabolic effects of other hormones.

      Gonadal hormones are essential for the differentiation of many secondary sex characters—the physical differences between the sexes—facilitate amplexus (copulatory embrace) and provide for the protection or nutrition of young. Secondary sex characters include scent glands; sexually linked pigmentation of the skin or its appendages; the nature of any vocal apparatus; hardened areas on the appendages that facilitate amplexus; distribution of hair; body size; mammary gland development; and other features.

      Gonadal hormones participate in the induction of behaviour necessary for the union of sperm and eggs; this includes migratory phenomena, heat (estrus) in mammals, courtship, territorial defense, mating, and care of eggs or young.

      Gonadal hormones participate in a mechanism that affects the pituitary, thereby imposing certain restraints on the secretion of gonadotropins.

      The effects of a cyclical environment on gonads is illustrated in mammals that ovulate spontaneously. Ovulation is induced by ovulatory hormones released rhythmically from the pituitary gland. Newborn mice maintained during the first week of life in regular, natural photoperiods will, on reaching maturity, ovulate regularly. Newborn mice kept in continuous light during this interval will not ovulate regularly. The photoperiods in which these animals live as neonates, or newborn, establish an intrinsic brain rhythm that subsequently results in cyclical reproductive activity. If mature female mice that have been ovulating regularly are subjected to continuous light, ovulation ultimately becomes arrhythmical. This suggests that the rhythmical environment is the ultimate regulator of the gonads (gonad). Because of the effects of cyclical photoperiods, spontaneous ovulation occurs about the same time of day or night in all members of species intensively studied thus far. Golden hamsters ovulate shortly after midnight; chickens and Japanese rice fish ovulate in the morning. Not all mammals ovulate (ovulation) spontaneously, however. In those that do not (e.g., reflex ovulators), including some cats, rodents, weasels, shrews, rabbits, the act of mating substitutes for the environmental effects on the pituitary gland in releasing ovulatory hormones (sex hormone) (see hormone).

Provisions for the developing embryo

      Among the requirements of developing embryos are nutrients, oxygen, a site in which to discharge metabolic wastes, and protection from the environment. These needs exist whether the embryo is developing outside the body of the female parent ( oviparity), or within, so that she delivers living young ( viviparity). Combinations of yolk, albumen, jellies, and shells contributed by the female parent, as well as membranes constructed from the tissues of the embryo meet the embryo's needs.

      Oviparous eggs are usually supplied with enough nutrients to last until the new individual is able to obtain food from the environment. The alternative, postnatal parental feeding, is uncommon. Oviparous animals that develop from yolk-laden eggs are not hatched until they resemble adults. Those that develop from eggs with moderate amounts of yolk hatch sooner, usually into free-living larvae; in this case the larvae transform, or undergo metamorphosis, into adults. The eggs of amphioxus, an oviparous protochordate, contain almost no nutrients; the embryos hatch in an extremely undeveloped but self-sustaining state as few as eight hours after fertilization. The yolk mass is large in some animals and becomes surrounded by a membrane called the yolk sac, the vessels of which convey yolk to the embryo. In some species, yolk also passes from the yolk sac directly into the fetal intestine.

      Oviparous fishes and amphibians develop in an aquatic environment, and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide and elimination of metabolic wastes occur through the egg membranes. Oviparous reptiles, birds, and monotremes develop on land, and gaseous exchange is accomplished by two membranes ( allantois, chorion) applied closely to the shell. The allantois also receives some wastes. Drying out or mechanical injury of embryos of reptiles, birds, and mammals is prevented by still another membrane, the amnion, which is a fluid-filled sac immediately surrounding the embryo.

      Viviparity has evolved in some members of all vertebrate classes except birds. When eggs heavily laden with yolk and surrounded by a well-formed shell develop within the female, the parent may provide the developing young only with shelter and oxygen (ovoviviparity). At the opposite extreme, if eggs contain only enough nutrients to supply energy for a few cell divisions after fertilization, the female provides shelter, oxygen, and nourishment, and, in addition, excretes all metabolic wastes produced by the developing organism (euviviparity). Between these extremes are numerous intermediate degrees of dependence on the parent.

      Teleosts have evolved many unusual adaptations for viviparity. In some viviparous teleosts the eggs are fertilized in the ovarian follicle, where development occurs. The granulosa cells either form a membrane that secretes nutrients and assists in respiratory and excretory functions or they may be ingested along with follicular fluid, nearby eggs, and other ovarian tissue. A common site for development is the ovarian cavity, which may become distended with as many as nine series of embryos of different ages. Embryos in this location are bathed with nutritive fluids secreted by the epithelium of the cavity. In some species, mortality rates of intraovarian young are high, and surviving individuals ingest those that die. In still other species, extensions of villi in the ovarian lining invade the mouth and opercular (gill) openings of the embryo, filling the opercular chamber, mouth, and pharynx with surfaces that secrete nutrients. The embryos also develop specialized surfaces for nutrition, respiration, and excretion. An enlarged pericardial (heart) sac or an expansion of the hindgut of the embryo may occur next to the blood-vessel containing (vascular) follicular wall. Vascular extensions may grow out of the anus, urinogenital pore, or gills of the embryo. Other embryonic surfaces—including ventral body wall, fins, and tail—may participate in the support of viviparity. These embryonic surfaces may lie in contact with the follicular or ovarian epithelium, or they may simply be bathed by ovarian (ovary) fluids. One or more combinations of the maternal and embryonic specializations described above, as well as many others, make viviparity possible among teleost fishes. In a number of teleosts the eggs are incubated, or brooded, in the mouth of the male for periods as long as 80 days. The oral epithelium becomes vascular and highly glandular. In sea horses and pipefish the female deposits her eggs in a ventral brood pouch of the male, and the embryos develop there.

      In viviparous elasmobranchs development takes place in the uterus, the lining of which develops parallel ridges or folds covered with villi or papillae (trophonemata) that constitute a simple placenta (site of fetal–maternal contact). In contact with this region is the yolk sac of the embryo, which serves as a respiratory and nutritive membrane. Trophonemata secrete uterine fluids that supplement the yolk as a source of energy. In one shark (Pteroplatea micrura), trophonemata extend into the spiracular chamber (an opening for the passage of respiratory water) of the young and secrete nutrients into the fetal gut. In another (Mustelus antarcticus), the uterine folds form fluid-filled compartments for each embryo. The yolk sac may lie in contact with the uterine lining, or projections of the sac may extend into uterine pits. When the stored yolk is used up before birth, the yolk sac may serve for the absorption of nutrients; i.e., as a placenta. In a few species, immature eggs that enter the oviduct are eaten by the developing young.

      Very few amphibians bear living young. In the viviparous frog Nectophrynoides, all development, including larval stages, occurs in the uteri and the young are born fully metamorphosed; i.e., except for size they resemble adults. N. occidentalis, an African species, has a nine-month gestation period. There is almost no yolk in the egg and no placenta, so it is probable that uterine fluids provide nourishment and oxygen. In N. vivipara there are as many as 100 larvae in the uteri, each with long vascular tails that may function as respiratory membranes. Gastrotheca marsupiata is an ovoviviparous anuran (Anura) with a gestation period of three to four months. In certain viviparous salamanders the extent of the nutritional dependence on the mother varies. After depleting their own yolk supply, the larvae of some forms eat other embryos and blood that escapes from the uterine lining. Conventional viviparity is rare among amphibians; (amphibian) however, they have evolved unusual alternatives. In some anurans the young develop in such places as around the legs of the male (Alytes), or in pouches in the skin of the back (some females of the genera Nototrema, Protopipa, and Pipa). In Pipa, vascular partitions in the skin pouch separate developing young, and the larvae have vascular tails that absorb substances. In Nototrema larval gills have vascular extensions with a similar function. The male Chilean toad (Rhinoderma darwinii) carries developing eggs in the vocal sac until the young frogs (frog) emerge.

      Some snakes and lizards (lizard) and all mammals (mammal) except monotremes exhibit viviparity to some degree. The same extra-embryonic membranes found in oviparous reptiles and mammals (yolk sac, chorioallantoic membrane, amnion) function in viviparous ones. Here, the extra-embryonic membranes lie against the uterine lining instead of against an egg shell. At special sites of fetal–maternal contact (placentas), viviparous young receive oxygen and give up carbon dioxide; metabolic wastes are transferred to maternal fluids and tissues; and, in euviviparous species, the young receive all their nutrients. Yolk-sac placentas are common in marsupials with short gestation periods (opossum, kangaroo) and in lizards. Chorioallantoic placentas (i.e., a large chorion fused with a large allantois) occur in certain lizards, in marsupials with long gestation periods, and in mammals above marsupials. The yolk-sac placenta does not invade maternal tissues, but intimate interlocking folds may occur between the two. The chorioallantoic membranes of reptiles and mammals exhibit many degrees of intimacy with maternal tissues, from simple contact to a deeply rooted condition (deciduate placentas). Chorioallantoic or chorionic placentas represent specializations in a chorionic sac surrounding the embryo. The entire surface of the sac may serve as a placenta (diffuse placenta, as in pigs); numerous separate patches of placental thickenings may develop (cotyledonary placenta, as in sheep); a thickened placental band may develop at the equator of the chorionic sac (zonary placenta, as in cats); or there may be a single oval patch of placental tissue (discoidal placenta, as in higher primates).

George C. Kent, Jr.

Additional Reading

Studies of reproductive systems in invertebrates are included in Libbie Henrietta Hyman, The Invertebrates, 6 vol. (1940–67), a detailed work on Protozoa through Mollusca; Joseph G. Engemann and Robert W. Hegner, Invertebrate Zoology, 3rd ed. (1981), a college-level text covering major groups; P.A. Meglitsch and Frederick R. Schram, Invertebrate Zoology, 3rd ed. (1991), a college-level text covering all major groups, highly readable and well illustrated; and Robert D. Barnes, Invertebrate Zoology, 6th ed. (1994), in which the reproduction of each major invertebrate group is discussed and illustrated. Reproductive systems in vertebrates, including some treatment of human reproduction, are discussed in Edwin S. Goodrich, Studies on the Structure & Development of Vertebrates, 2 vol. (1930, reprinted 1986), a classic, still useful for morphological details; Robert T. Orr, Vertebrate Biology, 5th ed. (1982), containing a good general discussion of vertebrate reproduction; C.R. Austin and R.V. Short (eds.), Reproduction in Mammals, 2nd ed., 5 vol. (1982–86); Marshall's Physiology of Reproduction, 4th ed. by G.E. Lamming, vol. 1, Reproductive Cycles of Vertebrates (1984); and Ernst Knobil and Jimmy D. Neill (eds.), The Physiology of Reproduction, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1994), a study of mammals.Specific topics are treated in Ari van Tienhoven, Reproductive Physiology of Vertebrates, 2nd ed. (1983), primarily for the reproductive physiologist but containing valuable anatomic data relating to all vertebrate classes; John G. Vandenbergh (ed.), Pheromones and Reproduction in Mammals (1983); Peter K.T. Pang and Martin P. Schreibman (eds.), Vertebrate Endocrinology, vol. 4, Reproduction, 2 parts (1991); A.D. Johnson, W.R. Gomes, and N.L. Vandemark (eds.), The Testis, 4 vol. (1970–77); B.P. Setchell, The Mammalian Testis (1978); Henry Burger and David de Kretser (eds.), The Testis, 2nd ed. (1989); Lord Zuckerman (Solly Zuckerman) and Barbara J. Weir (eds.), The Ovary, 2nd ed., 3 vol. (1977), a detailed account of the development, structure, and function of vertebrate ovaries, commencing with protochordates; Hannah Peters and Kenneth P. McNatty, The Ovary: A Correlation of Structure and Function in Mammals (1980); and Eli Y. Adashi and Peter C.K. Leung (eds.), The Ovary (1993).George C. Kent, Jr. Ed.

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