oral cancer

▪ pathology

Introduction

      disease characterized by the growth of cancerous cells in the mouth, including the lips. Oral cancer is often associated with cancers of the cavity located behind the tonsils and the back of the throat (oropharyngeal cancer). Most cases originate from the flattened cells that make up the lining of the oral cavity (squamous cell carcinomas (carcinoma)). Oral cancers can spread into the jaw and may occur simultaneously with cancers of the larynx, esophagus, or lungs.

Causes and symptoms

      Several factors have been identified that increase the risk of developing oral cancer. Tobacco and alcohol use are the leading factors, with each increasing the risk sixfold. Tobacco use includes cigarettes, cigars, pipes, and chewing tobacco. Oral cancer affects men at twice the rate of women, probably because men have generally been more likely to use tobacco and alcohol. Vitamin A deficiency is also a risk factor, and some strains of human papillomavirus can infect the mouth and may increase risk of oral cancer. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun is responsible for some cancers of the lips.

      Symptoms of oral cancer vary depending on the location of the cancer. The most common symptom is a mouth sore that does not heal. Some early visual signs include white or red patches in the mouth. White patches (leukoplakia) progress to cancer in about 5 percent of cases. The red patches (erythroplakia) bleed easily, and roughly half of them become cancerous. Other symptoms of oral or oropharyngeal cancer include lumps or swelling in the cheek, neck, or jaw, difficulty swallowing or moving the tongue or jaw, and pain in the jaw or teeth. Virtually any type of continuing mouth pain may indicate oral cancer and should be investigated by a physician.

Diagnosis

      Once cancer is suspected, a thorough examination is conducted to determine its type and stage. Suspected tumours are analyzed by biopsy, and the mouth, pharynx, and larynx are examined visually with small mirrors or a laryngoscope—a flexible tube that contains a light and lens at the end. In some cases a more extensive examination of the head and neck may be conducted under general anesthesia. Several imaging (diagnostic imaging) methods may also be used, such as chest and head X rays, computed tomography (computerized axial tomography) (CT) scans, or magnetic resonance imaging (diagnosis) (MRI). A swallowed dose of barium may be required before administering X rays in order to provide better image contrast.

      Once oral cancer has been diagnosed, its stage is determined to indicate how far the cancer has progressed. Stage 0 oropharyngeal cancer is confined to the epithelial cells that line the oral cavity or pharynx and is sometimes called carcinoma in situ. Stage I and II cancers are less than 2 cm (about ³/₄of an inch) and between 2 and 4 cm, respectively, and have not spread to nearby lymph nodes. Stage III tumours are either larger than 4 cm or are smaller cancers that have spread to one lymph node on the same side of the neck as the tumour. Stage IV tumours have spread to other regions of the neck, the lymph nodes, or other organs in the body.

      Survival is considerably higher when the cancer is detected early but very low once the cancer has spread to distant organs.

Treatment (therapeutics)

      Like most cancers, oral and oropharyngeal cancers can be treated with surgery, radiation, or chemotherapy. Surgery is often the first mode of treatment. In order to minimize tissue loss, superficial cancers of the lip may be shaved off a layer at a time until no cancer is detected. Small early-stage tumours can be removed along with some surrounding tissue with minimal side effects. If the cancer has spread into the surrounding bone, part or all of the jaw may have to be removed (mandible resection) or a maxillectomy performed to remove the hard palate. Both of these procedures require subsequent reconstructive surgery. If the cancer has spread into the lymph nodes of the neck, these nodes will also be removed.

      Oral and oropharyngeal cancers may be treated with radiation (radiation therapy), using either external beams or surgically implanted radioactive pellets. For oral cancer, external radiation is the most common approach. Radiation is usually employed in conjunction with surgery to destroy small amounts of remaining cancerous tissue.

Prevention (preventive medicine)

      Oral cancer is almost completely preventable if the key risk factors of smoking and alcohol consumption are avoided. A healthy diet containing sufficient vitamin A is also recommended. Regular dental examinations may detect oral cancer early. Dentures should be removed and cleaned at night to avoid trapping cancer-causing agents against the gums.

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