Northeast Indian

▪ people

Introduction

 member of any of the Native American peoples living at the time of European contact in the area roughly bounded in the north by the transition from predominantly deciduous forest to the taiga, in the east by the Atlantic Ocean, in the west by the Mississippi River valley, and in the south by an arc from the present-day North Carolina coast northwest to the Ohio River and thence southwest to its confluence with the Mississippi River. The Northeast culture area comprises a mosaic of temperate forests, meadows, wetlands, waterways, and coastal zones.

      European explorers and colonizers of the 16th century noted that the region was occupied by many different groups, each of which was a member of either the Algonquian (Algonquian languages), Iroquoian, or Siouan language (Siouan languages) families. As with linguistically related groups elsewhere (e.g., the French, Italian, and Spanish peoples within the Romance language family), each Native American language family comprised a number of distinct peoples. In discussions of indigenous North American peoples, the Northeast and Southeast culture areas are sometimes combined and referred to as the Eastern Woodlands (Eastern Woodlands Indians); this term is sometimes confused with that of the Eastern Woodland cultures, which designates a group of prehistoric societies rather than a culture area per se.

Traditional culture patterns

Territorial and political organization

      Of the three language families represented in the Northeast, Algonquian groups were the most widely distributed. Their territories comprised the entire region except the areas immediately surrounding Lakes Erie and Ontario, some parts of the present-day states of Wisconsin and Minnesota, and a portion of the interior of present-day Virginia and North Carolina. The major speakers of Algonquian languages include the Passamaquoddy, Malecite, Mi'kmaq (Micmac) Abenaki, Penobscot, Pennacook, Massachuset, Nauset, Wampanoag, Narragansett (Narraganset), Niantic, Pequot, Mohegan, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mohican (Mahican), Wappinger, Montauk, Delaware, Powhatan, Ojibwa, Menominee, Sauk, Kickapoo, Miami, Shawnee, and Illinois.

      The territory around Lakes Ontario and Erie was controlled by peoples speaking Iroquoian languages, including the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, Huron, Tionontati, Neutral, Wenrohronon, Erie, Susquehannock, and Laurentian Iroquois. The Tuscarora, who also spoke an Iroquoian language, lived in the coastal hills of present-day North Carolina and Virginia.

      Although many Siouan-speaking tribes once lived in the Northeast culture area, only the Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) people continue to reside there in large numbers. Most tribes within the Sioux nation moved west in the 16th and 17th centuries, as the effects of colonialism rippled across the continent. Although the Santee Sioux bands had the highest level of conflict with their Ojibwa neighbours, the Teton and Yankton Sioux bands moved the farthest west from their original territory. These bands, as well as most other Siouan-speaking groups, are usually considered to be part of the Plains Indian culture area despite their extended period of residence in the forests. The complexities of band designation and naming conventions are discussed in Sidebar: The Difference Between a Tribe and a Band; and Sidebar: Native American Self-Names.

 The most elaborate and powerful political organization in the Northeast was that of the Iroquois Confederacy. A loose coalition of tribes, it originally comprised the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. Later the Tuscarora joined as well. Indigenous traditions hold that the league was formed as a result of the efforts of the leaders Dekanawida and Hiawatha, probably during the 15th or the 16th century.

      The original intent of the coalition was to establish peace among the member tribes. One of the most important things it established was a standardized rate for blood money, the compensation paid to the family of a murder victim. Providing compensation for the loss of a family member was a long-standing practice, but, before the confederacy was established, entire tribes could go to war if an offer was deemed inadequate. The fixing of blood money rates prevented such conflicts from occurring within the league, although not between members of the league and other tribes.

 Notably, the value of both the victim's life and that of the murderer were part of the compensation, as the murderer had notionally forfeited the right to live by committing such violence. The agreed-upon rate was 10 strings of symbolically important shell beads, or wampum, for the life of a man and 20 strings of wampum for the life of a woman; thus, the total compensation for murder of a man by a man was 20 strings, of a woman by a woman 40 strings, and so on.

      The Iroquois Confederacy was a league of peace to its members, yet peace within the league also freed the tribes of the Confederacy to focus their military power on the conquest of other indigenous groups. Military activities were a primary occupation among men throughout the Northeast, and military honours were the primary gauge of a man's status within many tribes. Raids provided room for expansion as well as captive women and children; such captives were often adopted into the tribe in order to replace family members lost to death or capture. Captive adult men, however, generally fared less well than women and children. Among the Iroquois Confederacy, other Iroquoian speakers, and perhaps a few Algonquian groups, men taken during raids might be either tortured to death or adopted into the tribe. If the captive had been taken to compensate for a murder, his fate was usually determined by the family of the deceased. If their decision was to torture, the captive tried to avoid crying out, a practice that contributed to the stereotype of the stoicism among indigenous Americans. Among the Iroquois it was not uncommon to close the event by cannibalizing the body, a practice that alienated surrounding tribes.

      Although conflicts between the Iroquois Confederacy and neighbouring tribes certainly antedated colonization, it is equally certain that the confederacy increased its raiding activity during the ensuing centuries. This occurred for a number of reasons—some, such as demographic collapse, indirectly promoted violence, while others, such as economic pressures, were direct instigators of conflict. Although it is nearly impossible to completely untangle the ways that these processes interacted, it is useful to consider them both.

      Europeans who traveled to the Americas brought with them diseases to which indigenous peoples had no immunity. These new diseases proved much more deadly to Amerindians than they had been to Europeans and ultimately precipitated a pancontinental demographic collapse. The introduced diseases proved especially virulent in the concentrated settlements of the Iroquoians, who began to suffer heavier population losses than their neighbours. In attempting to replace those who had died during epidemics, the tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy seem to have taken kidnapping to unprecedented levels.

      Economic disruptions related to the commercialization of animal resources also instigated intertribal conflict. By the early 17th century, trapping had severely depleted the beaver population around the Great Lakes. At that time beaver pelts were the most important commodity in the fur trade economy and could easily be bartered for guns, ammunition, and other goods necessary to ensure a tribe's safety, or even preeminence, in a region. The Iroquois Confederacy occupied some of the more depleted beaver habitat and began a military campaign intended to effect expansion into territory that had not been overhunted.

      While raiding for expansionist purposes might have differed from raiding intended to take captives, those tribes that were put on the defensive created several alliances to repel confederacy attacks. A prominent example was an alliance known as the Wendat Confederacy, which comprised several Huron bands and the Tionontati. The Wenrohronon and the Neutral tribes also formed loose defensive coalitions. Ultimately, however, these alliances proved ineffective. The Iroquois Confederacy conquered the Wendat in 1648–50, the Neutrals in 1651, the Erie in 1656, and the Susquehannock in 1676.

Subsistence, settlement patterns, and housing

 The Northeast culture area comprises a mosaic of temperate forests, meadows, wetlands, and waterways. The traditional diet consisted of a wide variety of cultivated, hunted, and gathered foods, including corn (maize), beans, squash, deer, fish, waterbirds, leaves, seeds, tubers, berries, roots, nuts, and maple syrup.

      Rivers in the northern and eastern parts of the culture area had annual runs of anadromous fish such as salmon; in the north people tended to rely more upon fish than on crops as the latter were frequently destroyed by frost. Similarly, groups in the upper Great Lakes relied more upon wild rice (Zizania aquatica) than on crops, and peoples on the western fringes of the culture area relied more upon hunting the bison that roamed the local tallgrass prairies than on agriculture. On the Atlantic coast and along major inland rivers, shellfish were plentiful and played an important part in the diet. In contrast, residents of the central and southern parts of the culture area tended to rely quite heavily upon crops, because wild resources such as rice, anadromous fish, shellfish, and bison were unavailable. Notably, the geographic distribution of those areas where domesticated plants were essential mirrors the distribution of Iroquoians, while the Algonquian and Siouan groups generally lived in the areas of enriched wild resources.

      This is not to imply that the Algonquians and Siouans did not farm. All the Northeastern tribes were familiar with corn, beans (bean), and squash—often referred to as the “three sisters” for their complementary growing habits, nutritional value, and ease of storage. Fields were created by girdling trees and burning any undergrowth (see slash-and-burn agriculture); fruit and nut trees were not girdled but rather became part of the larger garden or field system. Crops were planted in small mounds or hills about three feet (one metre) across. Corn was planted in the centre of the mound, beans in a ring around the corn, and squash around the beans; as the plants grew, bean runners used the corn stalks as a support, and the broad leaves of the squash plants shaded out weeds and conserved soil moisture. The nitrogen depletion caused by intensive corn production was repaired by the beans' ability to fix nitrogen to the soil, and in combination the plant trio provided a wide complement of proteins and vitamins. Harvested produce was eaten fresh or dried and stored for winter meals, as were wild foods.

 The tribes that relied most heavily upon agriculture tended to coalesce into the largest settlements, perhaps because they needed to store and defend the harvest. Large Iroquoian villages, for instance, were protected by as many as three concentric palisades at the time of initial European contact, indicating that these groups were quite concerned about raids from fellow tribes. In contrast, Algonquian and Siouan oral traditions and early European reports indicate that the peoples living in areas with enriched wild food sources such as wild rice or salmon tended to live in relatively smaller and less protected villages and to spend more of their time in dispersed hunting and gathering camps. By the first half of the 17th century, however, nearly every village was ringed by a protective palisade.

 Algonquian and Siouan homes were wickiups (wickiup) or wigwams; Iroquoians lived in longhouses (longhouse). Wickiups were made by driving a number of pointed poles into the ground to make a circular or oval floor plan ranging from 15 to 20 feet (4.5 to 6 metres) in diameter. These poles were tied together with strips of bark and reinforced with other poles tied horizontally to make a dome-shaped framework that was covered with bark, reeds, or woven mats, the type of covering depending on the availability of materials in the area. A single fire in the centre provided heat for cooking and for warmth. Typically, a wickiup would house a single two- or three-generation family, although two close families would occasionally share a home.

  Traditional longhouses were also made of a framework of poles covered with bark sheets but were roughly rectangular in floor plan, with a door at either end and an arched roof; in terms of construction, a longhouse was rather like a greatly elongated wickiup. After European contact, longhouse construction techniques changed so that walls were built to remain vertical, rather than to create a roof arch, and were topped with a gable roof. A longhouse was usually some 22 to 23 feet (6 to 7 metres) wide and might be anywhere from 40 to 400 feet (12 to 122 metres) in length depending on the number of families living in it. Interior walls divided longhouses into compartments, and usually one nuclear family would reside in each. A series of hearths was placed down the middle of the structure, with the families on either side of the central walkway sharing the fire in the middle. The average longhouse probably had 5 fires and 10 families.

Production and technology

      In keeping with the forested environment of the region, most materials produced in the Northeast were made of wood. Dishes and spoons were made of bark or carved wood and an invitation to a feast was often phrased, “Come, and bring your bowl and spoon.” Corn-based potages were a dietary staple and were usually cooked in ceramic pots or birch-bark baskets (hot stones were placed in the latter); brass pots and kettles were prized for cooking once they became available as trade items. Corn was generally converted to hominy by soaking the kernels in ashes, removing the hulls, and pounding the remaining mass with a wooden pestle in a mortar hollowed out of a tree trunk. Occasionally, however, the corn was ground between two flat stones.

      Wooden dugouts and bark canoes were used for transport on the region's many lakes and streams; birch bark made the best canoes in terms of the ratio between strength and weight. The forest also provided materials for the frames of snowshoes, which made travel in the winter easier and which were essential in the north. The shafts for bows, arrows, and spears were also made of wood, while points for the arrows and spears were chipped from stone, as were many knives and other sharp-edged implements. A variety of bone tools were also made, primarily for processing animal hides into soft leather. European metal goods became very popular replacements for bone tools and stone arrowheads and knives, and indigenous peoples often fashioned the metal from damaged kettles into these familiar tools.

      Typically, labour (labour, division of) was divided on the basis of gender and age. Grandparents, great-aunts and great-uncles, and older siblings and cousins helped parents care for children from toddlerhood on, teaching them the ways of the group. Women cared for infants, cooked, made clothing and basketry containers, gathered wild plants and shellfish, fished, and made the tools necessary for these tasks. They also planted, weeded, and harvested all crops; in total, women typically grew, gathered, or caught the majority of the food consumed by a group. Men held councils, warred, built houses, hunted, fished, and made the implements they needed for these activities.

 Although housing and the reliance upon agriculture varied from tribe to tribe, clothing was fairly similar throughout the Northeast culture area. The basic item of men's dress was the breechcloth, a strip of soft leather drawn between the legs and held in place by looping it over a belt at the waist. For protection from the cold or while traveling in the forest, leggings—basically, two tubes of leather or fur also attached to the waist belt—were added. A cape or robe of leather or fur was also worn in cold weather. The basic item of women's dress was a skirt, to which might be added leggings tied at the knee and a cape or robe. Both men and women wore moccasins (moccasin), the soft-soled and heelless shoe adapted, among other things, for use with the snowshoe.

  Clothing might be decorated with painting, porcupine-quill embroidery, shells, or shell beads; glass beads, cloth, and ribbons were highly sought after once the fur trade made them available. For special occasions such as feasts and war expeditions, the body might also be decorated with paint and jewelry. Body modification (body modifications and mutilations) and ornamentation were common; many individuals had tattoos, especially on the face, long hair was admired and might be greased to add lustre, and a number of men plucked out some hair and cut the remainder to form roaches (a hairstyle now commonly referred to as a “Mohawk”) or other distinctive hairstyles.

Social organization

      Northeastern cultures used two approaches to social organization. One was based on linguistic and cultural affiliation and comprised tribes made up of bands (band) (for predominantly mobile groups) or villages (for more sedentary peoples). The other was based on kinship and included nuclear families, clans, and groups of clans called moieties or phratries. These two organizational structures often intersected at the lowest levels; one's nuclear family, for instance, was generally part of one's village. However, kin connections often smoothed social interaction at the tribal and intertribal levels (see below Kinship and family life (Northeast Indian)).

      A band or village was a loosely organized collection of people who occupied a particular locale and who recognized a common identity; bands tended to be smaller and to live in the resource-enriched parts of the region, while villages tended to be larger and more dependent upon agricultural produce. Each typically had a unique name for itself; a number of what were originally band or village appellations are now thought of as tribal names. In some cases, Europeans conflated the identities of a people, their geographic locale, and their leader, as with the people of the Powhatan confederacy, the village known as Powhatan, and the leader Powhatan. Several bands or villages comprised a tribe, which was also loosely organized and which in many parts of the area was not so much a political or decision-making unit as a group of people who spoke a common language and had similar customs.

  Although chieftainships (chief) often were inherited, personal ability was the basis for the influence that was exercised by a chief, or sachem. Leaders of various levels gathered frequently for councils, which might include 50 or more individuals. Such gatherings normally opened with prayers and an offering of tobacco to the divine, followed by the smoking of a Sacred Pipe, or calumet. West and south of the Great Lakes, this practice was elaborated into the calumet ceremony, and it is from this custom that phrases such as “sharing the peace pipe” are derived.

      Persuasion was an important skill for leaders because most communities used a consensus model for decision making; issues were discussed until there was broad agreement on a course of action. Any dissidents would either leave the group or continue to express their opposition until a change was made; in either case, the effectiveness of the community would be weakened. As a result, oratory was highly valued and developed into a fine art; even in English translations, the power of Northeast Indian oratory is evident. Speech making served as a means of ascertaining the diversity of opinion within the group and the manner in which consensus could be reached, for commonly each speaker summarized the opinions previously expressed before offering his own.

Kinship and family life

      Clans (clan) were perhaps the most important and stable social group in the Northeast. They served to divide the community into smaller cooperating units and to create a means for uniting people from different villages or bands. Members of a clan had certain obligations toward one another, such as providing hospitality to visitors of the same clan, regardless of tribal or community affiliations.

      Clan names often referred to an animal. The Seneca clans, for example, were called Turtle, Bear, Beaver, Wolf, Snipe, Hawk, Deer, and Heron. The animal, or totem (totemism), had a special relationship to the members of its clan; indeed, the word totem was adopted into English from an Ojibwa word denoting the close and mutually protective relationship one has with a sister or brother. Members of a clan considered themselves to be related whether or not a definitive genetic relationship could be traced. Because they represented groups of kin, clans were exogamous, or out-marrying, throughout the Northeast. Ideal marriage partners were often drawn from a specific clan that was seen as the complement of one's own. Some tribes also grouped clans into larger units called moieties (when the clans were evenly distributed) or phratries (when the clans were unevenly distributed); these larger groups had reciprocal obligations. Among many Iroquoians, for example, an important moiety responsibility was to bury the dead of the opposite group.

      Among the Iroquoians and the Delaware, clans were matrilineal (sibs); a child was automatically a member of the mother's clan. Patrilineal clans (gentes) were found among the Ho-Chunk and many other upper Great Lakes Algonquian tribes; a child in these tribes was a member of the father's clan.

      Thus, an Iroquois child whose father belonged to the Wolf clan and whose mother belonged to the Turtle clan was a member of the Turtle clan. Further, the child could not marry (without being accused of committing incest) any other members of the Turtle clan. Membership in a clan was for life; it did not change upon marriage. Because clan affiliation was so important in structuring community life, those who were born outside the system and were later adopted into a tribe were also adopted into a clan of that tribe.

      Clan membership was an important stabilizing device within native societies, as divorce and deaths from battle, childbirth, accident, and illness could change one's fortunes quite precipitously. A clan was responsible for the well-being of its members and ensured that those least able to provide for themselves—an orphaned child, an elder whose children had died or been killed, a widow or widower with several young children—were cared for. In longhouse societies, the very large houses, each of which was essentially a subset of a specific clan, would often bear these responsibilities.

      Each clan owned a number of names (name), and a newborn child was given a name that was not currently in use; a name would fall out of use when its owner died or took a new name because of a life-changing event. Certain names carried special responsibilities, such as those belonging to the chiefs of the Iroquois Confederacy. When one of those leaders died, the women of his clan decided on a successor who was a member of the same clan. If the successor was approved by the other chiefs, he was given the name of the deceased chief in a condolence ceremony that “raised up” and resuscitated the decedent by giving his name to the successor.

Religion

       animism pervaded many aspects of life for the Northeastern tribes, although it was expressed in a wide variety of ways. Among many upper Great Lakes tribes, each clan owned a bundle of sacred objects (ceremonial object). In aggregate the objects in the bundle were seen as spirit beings that were in some sense alive; the clan was responsible for performing the rituals that insured those beings' health and beneficence. The Iroquois had no comparable clan ceremonies; rather, a significant part of their ritual life centred on ceremonies in recognition of foods as they matured. These rituals included festivals celebrating the maple, strawberry, bean, and green corn harvests, as well as a midwinter ceremony.

      Medicine societies (medicine society), so termed because one of their important functions was curing and because their membership consisted of individuals who had undergone such cures, were also important. Typically their practices combined the use of medicinal plants with what would now be considered psychiatric care or psychological support. The most famous medicine society among the upper Great Lakes Algonquians was the Midewiwin, or Grand Medicine Society, whose elaborate annual or semiannual meetings included the performance of various magical feats. Of the various Iroquois medicine societies, the False Face Society is perhaps best known. The wooden masks worn by members of this society during their rituals were carved from living trees; the masks were believed to be powerful living entities capable of curing the sick when properly cared for or of causing great harm when treated disrespectfully. False Face masks were once commonly found exhibited in museums and pictured in books on Native American art; by the early 21st century, however, many tribes preferred to remove their masks from the public eye as a mark of respect for the sacred.

      Not all curing was performed by members of medicine societies. Certain individuals—often termed medicine men (medicine man), shamans, or powwows (a term that has changed meaning over time)—had the power to cure, a power that was often indicated in a vision or dream (see shamanism; powwow). Dreams were especially important, because they indicated not only the causes of illness and an individual's power to cure but also the means of maintaining good fortune in various aspects of life. So much attention was paid to dreams that among some peoples a mother asked her children each morning if they had dreamed in order to teach them to cultivate and attend to these experiences. Dreams could also influence the decisions of councils. Although boys might undertake a vision quest (particularly around the time of puberty), this was not as important in the Northeast as it was among the Plains Indians (Plains Indian).

      The reliance on dreams should not be interpreted as an indication that these people lived in a fantasy world. Because their cultures placed great emphasis on self-reliance and individual competence, attention to the content of dreams provided a means of understanding oneself and of bringing to consciousness knowledge stored in the unconscious, including knowledge as to where one's greatest abilities lay; dreams and visions might indicate whether one had special ability in warfare, hunting, and other such activities.

Cultural continuity and change

      When Europeans arrived on the North American continent, they brought manufactured goods that the Indians welcomed and new diseases that they did not. Certain of these diseases proved particularly devastating to Native Americans because they did not have the immunity that the colonial populations had developed through centuries of exposure. For example, the first epidemic recorded in New England took place in 1616–17; while the very early date of this pestilence makes it difficult to determine exactly what disease was involved, most historical epidemiologists and demographers believe it was probably smallpox. As no census figures for Native Americans are available for this period, the number of individuals who perished is similarly difficult to discern. Historically, however, the mortality rates for populations experiencing smallpox for the first time have ranged from 20 to 90 percent. The mortality rates appear to have been quite high in this case, as the Puritans who landed at Plymouth in 1620 remarked upon the large number of abandoned villages near their settlement. They interpreted this obvious and recent depopulation of the region as a sign of divine favour—believing that God had used the epidemic to rid the area of indigenous nonbelievers who would have hindered Puritan expansion.

      The extensive trade that developed between Northeastern peoples and the French, English, and Dutch who colonized the region rested on mutual desire. The Europeans desired furs, especially beaver fur, as the undercoat of a beaver pelt could be processed into a strong felt that was used in making hats. The Northeastern peoples desired objects such as guns, brass pots and kettles, metal needles and fishhooks, glass beads, and cloth.

      The colonizers soon discovered the value of wampum and established workshops to mass-produce the material on Long Island and in present-day New Jersey. Wampum was used symbolically as blood money, for jewelry and gifts, and as a mnemonic for significant occasions. Important messages, for instance, were accompanied by strings of wampum that had been fashioned using colours or designs that referred symbolically to the communication's content; the making of treaties likewise involved the exchange of wampum belts to confirm the sincerity of the parties and to symbolically record the agreement. Belts or strings of wampum were also used on other political and religious occasions and kept as reminders of those events. Because it was valuable, wampum became a medium of exchange not only between Indians and traders but also among the colonists. Because the coinage in common use in the colonies was already diverse, including Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Dutch coins as well as English ones, the adoption of wampum as another medium of exchange was an easy matter. Wampum, however, was not used as money before European contact.

      The initial European settlement clung to the Atlantic coast—the sea provided the lifeline to the European homeland that the colonists needed—and thus coastal groups were first affected by the newcomers' desire for land. They were ill equipped to counter the invasion. Not only were their numbers relatively small (and made even smaller by the epidemics), but their political organization was not of the kind that easily led to unified action of numbers of men. Friction with the colonists did occasionally erupt, however, as in the Pequot War (1637) and King Philip's War (1675–76). Such resistance could not be maintained for long, however, and indigenous peoples began to adopt European ways as a means of survival. This often involved the acceptance and practice of Christianity; some missionaries were especially influential. John Eliot (Eliot, John), for example, accomplished the monumental task of translating the Bible into Algonquian, publishing the translation in two volumes that appeared in 1661 and 1663.

      The Iroquoians fared somewhat better than the coastal Algonquians. In the 17th and 18th centuries, their inland location protected them from European settlement, although part of their eastern territory was colonized. In addition, European traders wished to retain the Iroquoians' services as middlemen who would take the risks associated with transporting manufactured goods and furs over long distances. The Iroquoians understood their positional advantage and engaged in both war and diplomacy to maintain their grip on the region. Their power was finally broken during the American Revolution, when George Washington (Washington, George), aware of the alliance of a number of Iroquoian tribes with the British, sent a punitive expedition into what is now upstate New York. After the Revolution, many of these peoples moved to Canada; others remained in New York state, and some (predominantly Oneida) moved to present-day Wisconsin.

 Like native peoples farther east, those of the upper Great Lakes area were greatly affected by the fur trade. The French established a series of trading posts there, and the English challenged them for control of the area. Indians from the east, such as the Delaware, Ottawa, and Shawnee, drifted into the area seeking furs and land. The result was a series of wars and skirmishes involving various combinations of the tribes, the English, and the French. In the 18th and 19th centuries, several prophets attempted to revitalize indigenous culture, and a series of chiefs worked to unite various tribes for the purposes of war. Notable among these were Pontiac (Ottawa), Little Turtle (Miami), Tecumseh and his half-brother The Prophet (Prophet, The) (Shawnee), Keokuk (Sauk), and Black Hawk (Sauk).

      Eventually the tribes entered into treaty relations with the governments of the United States or Canada, although the terms of these agreements were generally quite unfavourable to the tribes. Despite heroic efforts to protect their homelands, all of the Northeastern peoples that survived the early colonial period had been either moved to far-flung reservations (reservation) or disenfranchised of their land by the end of the 19th century.

 Despite having been removed to reservations distant from their original homes—or, conversely, being forced to partition communally owned tribal land into private holdings in order to retain title thereof (thus losing tribal status)—many of the Northeastern tribes persisted in having active tribal governments and councils and in engaging in a variety of traditional cultural activities. These actions were important as the tribes dealt with a variety of governmental policies during the 20th century, including urban relocation programs and termination, a policy that removed federal recognition from tribes. They were also crucial in the creation of a variety of tribal development projects that include timber mills, manufacturing centres, and casinos (see Native American gaming (gaming, Indian)). By the late 20th and early 21st centuries, many groups that had lost tribal status had successfully petitioned the U.S. government to reinstitute their sovereignty; for instance, the Menominee of Wisconsin represented one of the first tribes to be reinstated (1973) after termination, while the Mashpee Wampanoag of Massachusetts, long declared “extinct,” were granted federal acknowledgement of tribal status in 2007. See also Native American: History (Native American); Native American: Developments in the late 20th and early 21st centuries (Native American).

Elisabeth Tooker Elizabeth Prine Pauls

Additional Reading

Regional syntheses of the traditional cultures of the Northeast are in Robert E. Ritzenthaler and Pat Ritzenthaler, The Woodland Indians of the Western Great Lakes (1970, reissued 1991); Howard S. Russell, Indian New England Before the Mayflower (1980); Bruce G. Trigger, Natives and Newcomers: Canada's “Heroic Age” Reconsidered (1985), covering the period from 9000 BC to the mid-19th century; William C. Sturtevant (ed.), Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15, Northeast, ed. by Bruce Trigger (1978); and Kathleen J. Bragdon, The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Northeast (2001).Descriptions of particular cultures include Wilson D. Wallis and Ruth Sawtell Wallis, The Micmac Indians of Eastern Canada (1955); Frank G. Speck, Penobscot Man: The Life History of a Forest Tribe in Maine (1940, reissued 1970); Laurence M. Hauptman and James D. Wherry (eds.), The Pequots in Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian Nation (1990); Helen C. Rountree, The Powhatan Indians of Virginia: Their Traditional Culture (1989), and Pocahontas's People: The Powhatan Indians of Virginia Through Four Centuries (1990); Lewis H. Morgan, League of the Ho-dé-no-sau-nee, or Iroquois (1851, reissued as League of the Iroquois, 1993); George T. Hunt, The Wars of the Iroquois (1940, reissued 1978); Jack Campisi and Laurence M. Hauptman (eds.), The Oneida Indian Experience (1988), academic and native essays covering the period from before the American Revolution to the present; James W. Bradley, Evolution of the Onondaga Iroquois: Accommodating Change, 1500–1655 (1987); Anthony F.C. Wallace, The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca (1970); Elisabeth Tooker, An Ethnography of the Huron Indians, 1615–1649 (1964, reissued 1991); Bruce G. Trigger, The Huron: Farmers of the North, 2nd ed. (1990); Paul Radin, The Winnebago Tribe (1923, reissued 1990); Walter James Hoffman, The Menomini Indians (1896, reprinted 1970); Peter S. Schmalz, The Ojibwa of Southern Ontario (1991), on both their past and their present; William Thomas Hagan, The Sac and Fox Indians (1958, reissued 1989); Bert Anson, The Miami Indians (1970); and William N. Fenton, The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy (1998).General discussions of the historical period include Neal Salisbury, Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500–1643 (1982); Alden T. Vaughan, New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians, 1620–1675, rev. ed. (1979); W. Vernon Kinietz, The Indians of the Western Great Lakes, 1615–1760 (1940, reissued 1991); Kenneth M. Morrison, The Embattled Northeast: The Elusive Ideal of Alliance in Abenaki-Euramerican Relations (1984); Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire (1984), on the period from the early 1600s to 1744; Helen Hornbeck Tanner et al. (eds.), Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History (1987), with an extensive bibliography; Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (eds.), Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600–1800 (1987); Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (1991); Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (1992); Kathleen J. Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1500–1650 (1996); Colin G. Calloway, After King Philip's War: Presence and Persistence in Indian New England (1997); Gregory Evans Dowd, War Under Heaven: Pontiac, the Indian Nations & the British Empire (2002); and Gerald F. Reid, Kahnawà:Ke: Factionalism, Traditionalism, and Nationalism in a Mohawk Community (2004).Life in the 20th and 21st centuries is discussed in Ruth Landes, Ojibwa Sociology (1937, reprinted 1969); Jack Campisi, The Mashpee Indians: Tribe on Trial (1991), discussing the 1977 land-claims lawsuit; William Wilmon Newcomb, The Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians (1956); Frederick O. Gearing, The Face of the Fox (1970, reprinted 1988), a description of reservation life; J. Anthony Paredes (ed.), Anishinabe: 6 Studies of Modern Chippewa (1980); James H. Howard, Shawnee!: The Ceremonialism of a Native Indian Tribe and Its Cultural Background (1981); Gerald Vizenor, The People Named the Chippewa: Narrative Histories (1984); and Robert S. Grumet (ed.), Voices from the Delaware Big House Ceremony (2001).Elisabeth Tooker Ed.

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