North Indian temple architecture

▪ architectural style

      style of architecture produced throughout northern India and as far south (South Asian arts) as Bijāpur district, characterized by its distinctive śikhara, a superstructure, tower, or spire. The style is sometimes referred to as Nāgara, a type of temple mentioned in the Śilpa-śāstras (traditional canons of architecture), but exact correlation of the Śilpa-śāstra terms with extant architecture has not yet been established.

      The typical Hindu temple in northern India, on plan, consists of a small square-shaped sanctuary (called the garbhagṛha, or “womb-room”) housing the main image, preceded by one or more adjoining pillared maṇḍapas (porches or halls), which are connected to the sanctum by an open or closed vestibule (antarāla). The entrance doorway of the sanctum is usually richly decorated with figures of river goddesses and bands of floral, figural, and geometric ornamentation. An ambulatory is sometimes provided around the sanctum. Above the main sanctuary rises a spire ( śikhara), which is usually curvilinear in outline, and smaller rectilinear śikharas of the phāmsanā type frequently top the maṇḍapas as well. The whole may be raised on a terrace (jagati) with attendant shrines at the corners. If a temple is dedicated to the god Śiva, the figure of the bull Nandi, the god's mount, invariably faces the sanctum, and, if dedicated to the god Vishnu, standards (dhvaja-stambha) may be set up in front of the temple.

      The centre of each side of the square sanctum is subjected to a gradated series of projections, creating a characteristic cruciform plan. The exterior walls are usually decorated with sculptures of mythological and semidivine figures, with the main images of the deities placed in niches carved on the main projections. The interior is also frequently richly carved, particularly the coffered ceilings, which are supported by pillars of varying design.

      That the prototype of the North Indian temple already existed in the 6th century can be seen in surviving temples such as the temple at Deogarh, Bihār state, which has a small stunted śikhara over the sanctuary. The style fully emerged in the 8th century and developed distinct regional variations in Orissa, central India, Rājasthān, and Gujarāt. A classification of North Indian temples is generally made on the basis of śikhara types, such as the rectilinear phāmsanā and the curvilinear latina, with its two variations, the śekharī and the bhūmija (see śikhara).

      One typical form of the North Indian style is seen in the early temples at Orissa, such as the graceful 8th-century Paraśurāmeśvara Temple at Bhubaneswar, a city that was a great centre of temple-building activity. From the 10th century a characteristic Oriya style developed that exhibited a greater elevation of the wall and a more elaborate spire. The Liṅgarāja Temple at Bhubaneswar, of the 11th century, is an example of the Oriya style in its fullest development. The Sun Temple at Konārak, the sanctum of which is badly damaged, is the largest and perhaps the most famous Oriya temple.

      A development from the simpler to a more elevated and elaborate style is evident in central India, except that the śekharī type of superstructure, with multiple tenets, is more favoured from the 10th century onward. Interiors and pillars are more richly carved than in Orissa. The Central Indian style in its most developed form appears at Khajurāho, as seen in the Kaṇḍārya Mahādeva Temple (c. 11th century). There, an overall effect of harmony and majesty is maintained despite the exuberance of sculpture on the outer walls; the rich profusion of miniature shrines on the śekharī spire reinforces the ascending movement considerably.

      Large numbers of temples are preserved in Gujarāt, but most of them have been badly damaged. The early 11th-century Sun Temple at Modhera is one of the finest.

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