Native American religions

Introduction

      religious beliefs and sacramental practices of the indigenous peoples of North and South America. Until the 1950s it was commonly assumed that the religions of the surviving Native Americans were little more than curious anachronisms, dying remnants of humankind's childhood. These traditions lacked sacred texts and fixed doctrines or moral codes and were embedded in societies without wealth, mostly without writing, and without recognizable systems of politics or justice or any of the usual indicators of civilization. Today the situation has changed dramatically. Scholars of religion, students of the ecological sciences, and individuals committed to expanding and deepening their own religious lives have found in these traditions many distinct and varied religious worlds that have struggled to survive but that retain the ability to inspire.

      The histories of these worlds are also marked by loss. Five hundred years of political, economic, and religious domination have taken their toll. Scholars note when complex ceremonies become extinct, but often community members mourn even more the disappearance of small daily rituals and of religious vocabularies and grammars embedded in traditional languages—an erosion of memories that include not only formal sacred narratives but the myriad informal strands that once composed these tightly woven ways of life. Nevertheless, despite the pervasive effects of modern society, from which there is no longer any possibility of geographic, economic, or technological isolation, there are instances of remarkable continuity with the past, as well as remarkably creative adaptation to the present and anticipation of the future.

North America (Native American)

 Native American people themselves often claim that their traditional ways of life do not include “religion.” They find the term difficult, often impossible, to translate into their own languages. This apparent incongruity arises from differences in cosmology and epistemology. Western tradition distinguishes religious thought and action as that whose ultimate authority is supernatural—which is to say, beyond, above, or outside both phenomenal nature and human reason. In most indigenous worldviews there is no such antithesis. Plants and animals, clouds and mountains carry and embody revelation. Even where native tradition conceives of a realm or world apart from the terrestrial one and not normally visible from it, as in the case of the Iroquois Sky World or the several underworlds of Pueblo (Pueblo Indians) cosmologies, the boundaries between these worlds are permeable. The ontological distance between land and sky or between land and underworld is short and is traversed in both directions.

      Instead of encompassing a duality of sacred and profane, indigenous religious traditions seem to conceive only of sacred and more sacred. Spirit, power, or something akin moves in all things, though not equally. For native communities religion is understood as the relationship between living humans and other persons or things, however they are conceived. These may include departed as well as yet-to-be-born human beings, beings in the so-called “natural world” of flora and fauna, and visible entities that are not animate by Western standards, such as mountains, springs, lakes, and clouds. This group of entities also includes what scholars of religion might denote as “mythic beings,” beings that are not normally visible but are understood to inhabit and affect either this world or some other world contiguous to it.

Diversity and common themes

      Because religions of this kind are so highly localized, it is impossible to determine exactly how many exist in North America now or may have existed in the past. Distinct languages in North America at the time of the first European contact are often estimated in the vicinity of 300, which linguists have variously grouped into some 30 to 50 families. Consequently, there is great diversity among these traditions. For instance, Iroquois longhouse elders speak frequently about the Creator's “Original Instructions” to human beings, using male gender references and attributing to this divinity not only the planning and organizing of creation but qualities of goodness, wisdom, and perfection that are reminiscent of the Christian deity. By contrast, the Koyukon universe is notably decentralized. Raven (Raven cycle), whom Koyukon narratives credit with the creation of human beings, is only one among many powerful entities in the Koyukon world. He exhibits human weaknesses such as lust and pride, is neither all-knowing nor all-good, and teaches more often by counterexample than by his wisdom.

      A similarly sharp contrast is found in Navajo and Pueblo (Pueblo Indians) ritual. Most traditional Navajo ceremonies are enacted on behalf of individuals in response to specific needs. Most Pueblo ceremonial work is communal, both in participation and in perceived benefit, and is scheduled according to natural cycles. Still, the healing benefits of a Navajo sing naturally spread through the families of all those participating, while the communal benefits of Pueblo ceremonial work naturally redound to individuals.

      Thus, there is no such thing as a generic “Native American religion.” Attempts to understand these religious traditions en masse are bound to produce oversimplification and distortion. Instead, it may be useful to consider the broad characteristics that pertain to the religious lives of many indigenous North American communities.

      In the Native American experience, place is important, and religious practices are often localized. The importance of place is revealed in the beliefs of the Menominee, who use local geography to explain the origin of their people, and the Iroquois, whose longhouses (longhouse) are understood as microcosms of the universe. Moreover, traditional knowledge, passed on orally across the generations, maintains the memory of visible and invisible inhabitants of a place. Access to some kinds of knowledge, however, is restricted. Actions, words, and thoughts are understood in many traditions to have power in the world. Some knowledge may be considered so powerful and dangerous that a process of instruction and initiation is required for those who will use it.

      Participation is more important than belief. Arguments about doctrinal truth are largely absent from most native North American religious traditions. Good-hearted participation in the ceremonial and everyday work of the community is the main requirement. However, knowledgeable people with considerable life experience may discuss such matters informally.

      Cooperation with and devotion to the larger kin group (kinship) is a central part of small-scale societies, and this is true of Native American communities. Teaching proper behaviour toward others, which is defined by one's relationship to them, is an essential part of child rearing. This instruction is religious as well, because of the expectation that the entire world, one's life, and one's other-than-human relatives will be treated in the same way as all human relatives.

      Generosity, in the Native American tradition, is a religious act as well as a social one. The value of generosity is perhaps most dramatically figured in the northern practice known in English as giveaway or in the potlatch of the Northwest Coast peoples, in which property and gifts are ceremonially distributed. Human beings are taught to give eagerly because in so doing they imitate the generosity of the many other-than-human entities that provide for human sustenance.

      A community's oral narratives (folk literature) contain a record of human interaction with other-than-human beings, powers, and entities in a place. In addition to the more solemn genres, such as creation stories and migration narratives, there are moralistic stories, family histories, instruction meant to teach traditional skills, and many kinds of jokes. Moreover, joking, clowning, and other forms of entertainment are integral parts of many ceremonial events and settings, either formally or informally. Sometimes such performances are a means of shaming individuals into correcting troublesome behaviour, but they are also employed simply to spread happiness and to lighten moods.

      Significant achievements and life passages are meant to be shared by relatives and the community. Various forms of coming-of-age and initiation ceremonies make up a large portion of the ritual repertoire of many Native American traditions. These ceremonies provide structures for instruction in traditional knowledge, but, more important, they reintegrate an individual into kin, community, and cosmos when new status is attained.

      One of the more important life passages is death, which is understood as a transition and not an ending. Beliefs about death, and ritual responses to it, however, are among the more heterogeneous aspects of Native American religious life. Many Native American traditions appear to conceive of human beings as complex entities that bind together different kinds of essences, breaths, or spirits, which are thought to undergo divergent outcomes after death. It is believed that after death some of these essences may be harmful for living people to encounter without ceremonial protection.

Historical change

      A serious misconception about native North American religions is that, before contact with European civilization, they existed in a changeless “Golden Age” and that what happened later can be described only as degeneration. This view owes much to the misgivings of many 19th-century Europeans over the deep changes wrought on their own societies by the Industrial Age. Change, borrowing, and innovation are characteristic of any living religion, but indigenous communities relied on strands of oral communication to maintain both continuity and the memory of change, and Euro-American observers were ill-equipped to notice and record these sources.

      At the same time, the changes that visited Native Americans in the wake of the arrival of the Europeans were massive, unprecedented, and mostly destructive. Whole languages—and with them ceremonies, narratives, and oral libraries of accumulated knowledge about human and natural history and humour—were lost. Even the most earnest and energetic efforts to rejuvenate traditional ways can seem pale and pathetic to those who remember earlier days. Yet some elders reject this pessimism. Instead, they note that there was a community where a snake dance was once performed, but the ceremony became extinct. Anthropologists expressed alarm, but an elder insisted that people should not be disturbed. “If it was lost it was because we didn't need it any more,” he said. “If we really need it back again, the snakes will teach it to us again. It was they who taught it to us in the first place.”

      Sometimes, however, disruption is so catastrophic that individuals and communities must respond with fresh, powerful visions that transplant the germ of past wisdom into entirely new seedbeds. When it succeeds, such inspiration can meld tradition and innovation in surprisingly effective ways. Two such examples are the Native American Church, sometimes known as the peyote church, and the Ghost Dance movement. The Native American church emerged in the mid-19th century when an ancient ritual of central Mexico moved into the United States and blended with Christian (Christianity) influences. It spread, in part, through the medium of government-run Indian schools, and it is the only native religious tradition that has become truly portable, spreading from coast to coast. The Ghost Dance was one of two movements influenced by Christian traditions that announced the imminent return of the dead and the restoration of Native Americans' traditional way of life. Although the Ghost Dance tradition suffered a terrible tragedy at the massacre at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, in 1890, it was for a time a powerful expression of both hope and despair as the Euro-American conquest of the continent neared completion. It also continued in modified form until the 1950s and underwent occasional revivals in the later 20th century.

      A third response to religious disintegration involves the creation of American Indian Christian congregations. In some instances conversion to Christianity was enforced, with dire penalties for refusal. In other cases it appears to have been accepted voluntarily, out of sincere devotion to the missionaries and their message. In yet other cases it was probably accepted for a more practical mix of reasons. Often conversion meant an increased chance for physical survival, regardless of how sincere the conversion was. Once physical survival and a degree of stability had been established, many congregations of Native American Christians recast their faith and practice to include traditional views and values. Kinship obligations, sharing of resources, and a general emphasis on community in preference to individualistic approaches to salvation have been some of these Native Christian adaptations. In some cases traditional language and symbolism have been incorporated into Christian worship as well.

Issues and concerns

      American Indian traditionalists believe that the values, knowledge, narrative traditions, and ritual worlds they were taught, however compromised by historical loss and the demands of modern life, are vital to the survival of their human and other-than-human communities. While it is undeniable that much has already been irrevocably lost, all but the most pessimistic find much to work toward and to fight for in the present. Key issues for the survival of these traditions include access to and control of sacred sites, preservation of Native American languages, return of sacred artifacts, and maintenance of the integrity of religious knowledge and values.

      One of the more important concerns of the adherents of the traditional religions is control of sacred sites. Many locations used for ceremonial purposes or considered to be the home of powerful entities have been disrupted and contaminated by recreational activities and economic exploitation. This has been especially problematic when it occurs on public lands, as in the cases of Devils Tower in Wyoming, Mount Shasta in California, and Mount Graham in Arizona. In the case of Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association (1988), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the disturbance of the practice of religion need not be weighed against economic benefit in determining how public lands are to be used.

      Apart from the Native American church and Native Christian congregations, most American Indian traditionalists believe that ceremonial work and traditional knowledge are authentic and potent only when conducted in their native languages. Yet most of these languages are eroding rapidly and among persons under age 40 are nearly extinct. In oral (folk literature) societies it is vital that each generation identify and train individuals to memorize this knowledge and so carry it forward. Wide swaths of this knowledge can disappear with startling speed when there are no young people fluent enough to preserve it. Some communities are trying urgently to arrest this trend; for others it is already too late.

      Along with having lost many traditional languages, Native Americans have also suffered the loss of sacred artifacts (ceremonial object) that have been taken, sometimes illegally, and held in museums. In some cases great harm is thought to have resulted from these displays—harm to the museums and their visitors as well as to the native people who are the proper caretakers of these artifacts. It is important to understand that for indigenous traditionalists there are items, such as certain masks, that are alive, extremely powerful, and dangerous when not treated with proper ceremonial care. They are certainly not, as observers of the culture might assume, merely inanimate objects imbued with symbolic significance. The physical remains of deceased Native Americans fall into a different but related category of powerful “objects” not to be removed from their proper places and studied or displayed.

      The irresponsible use of traditional religious knowledge is also a problem. Religious knowledge has been distorted or represented inaccurately, and, even when it has been accurately represented, its use has sometimes been unsanctioned. Scholars and New Age (New Age movement) enthusiasts alike are accused of both these kinds of abuse. In Native American communities the exchange of knowledge, like any other exchange, is meant to be reciprocated. A growing number of anthropologists know this and do their best to honour it, but many still do not. The record is far worse for promoters of New Age imitations of indigenous practice, regardless of whether they have American Indian blood.

      The conditions of modern economic life have further eroded traditional values and practices. At the close of the 20th century, most citizens of Western nations such as Canada and the United States found that spare time, even time for weekly religious observance, had become scarce. Indigenous traditional knowledge, however, is best learned slowly. There are many young adults in Native American communities who strongly wish to participate in traditional religious life, but the pressures of job and school make it impossible to devote enough time to learning and practicing the requisite language, natural history, traditional narratives, and ceremonial procedures.

      These needs are best met in communities with strong resolve, where internal divisions have been softened and where elders and young people work together. Today many Native American youth show strong interest in traditional knowledge. Some are learning to use new technology and other skills to develop innovative means for learning and maintaining that knowledge. The results will differ from the traditions known and loved by today's elders when they were young, but native North American religious life continues as a viable and ongoing tradition of religious thought and practice.

Christopher Jocks

South America (South American Indian)

      Even though many peoples have suffered physical and cultural extinction since the first contact with Europeans, the religious life of indigenous South American peoples is vibrant and varied. Linguists have described as many as 1,500 distinct languages and native cultures in South America. Very few surviving communities, however, have been uninfluenced by Christian (Christianity) missionaries. For centuries Roman Catholicism was the dominant Christian influence on Native American peoples. In the 20th century various forms of Protestant (Protestant Heritage) Christianity have taken hold, especially Evangelical (Evangelical church) and Pentecostal (Pentecostalism).

      Nevertheless, indigenous religious ideas and practices have endured, even in communities that have long had involvement with Christian beliefs. In many of these cases, Christian views have been creatively absorbed and reframed within native worldviews. In some instances native myths have borrowed Christian features in order to offer a criticism of Christianity, putting forward Christ-like supernatural heroes who led rebellions against colonial rule and missionary zeal. A sense of the nature and variety of religious life in South America can be conveyed by examining beliefs about creation, practices associated with the calendar and with the initiation of new adults, forms of special religious authority, and prophetic movements concerned with the end of the world.

Creation myths (creation myth)

      Even though they differ in detail, creation mythologies play a singularly important role in the religious life of many South American tribes. These myths describe the origin of the first world and its fate and sometimes include narratives of the creation and destruction of subsequent worlds. In some narratives creation is the work of a supreme being, and some myths describe creation from nothing while others involve creation from a preexisting substance. Moreover, many creation myths describe in dramatic ways the exit of the creative beings. They may be driven off, sent into the sky in the form of stars (cosmology), or moved off into the forest, or they may take refuge in other levels of the universe. The manner of a being's disappearance figures in the ritual celebrations that commemorate it.

      The myths of the destruction of multiple worlds place a great question mark at the beginning of existence. Why should powerful worlds fall prey to disaster? Why should beings so perfect and powerful suffer destruction? The religious life of many South American peoples places this kind of question at the foundation of religious experience. Rather than providing answers to such questions, the myths of multiple destruction install the questions themselves as fundamental.

Calendrical practices

      Scenarios of universal catastrophe and destruction mark the passage of time and can thereby lead to the institution of the calendar. The most obvious calendrical marker of time that arises from universal catastrophe and disaster is the procession of stars. South American mythologies consistently join the death of primordial beings (often later known in the form of animals) with the cataclysmic destruction of the first worlds and the ascent of the stars into the heavens. Notably, the Makiritare of the Orinoco River region in Venezuela tell how the stars, led by Wlaha, were forced to ascend on high when Kuamachi, the evening star, sought to avenge the death of his mother. Kuamachi and his grandfather induced Wlaha and the other stars to climb into dewaka trees to gather the ripe fruit. When Kuamachi picked the fruit, it fell and broke open. Water spilled out and flooded the forest. With his powerful thoughts, Kuamachi created a canoe in which he and his grandfather escaped. Along the way they created deadly water animals such as the anaconda, the piranha, and the caiman. One by one Kuamachi shot down the stars of heaven from the trees in which they were lodged. They fell into the water and were devoured by the animals. After they were gnawed and gored into different ragged shapes, the survivors ascended into the sky on a ladder of arrows. There the stars took their proper places and began shining.

Initiation

      Ceremonial initiation into adulthood is widely practiced among South American peoples, for both males and females. Many of the religious themes mentioned earlier are present in these rites, for initiation is seen as a kind of new creation, the dawn of a new epoch. Initiation itself is often timed to occur at moments of powerful change in the calendar. In this way the change in the human individual is aligned with fundamental changes in the cosmos and in society. In fact, in order for this change in the human being to be effective, it must align with the powerful and momentous changes that are occurring in the primordial world.

      The Baniwa of the northwest Amazon region of Brazil, for example, seclude girls during their initiation. The girls' bodies are covered with heron down and red paint, and each girl is hidden inside two baskets. The elders deliver dramatic speeches and whip the initiate in order to open her skin. Pepper is touched to her lips; then a small hole is made in the dirt floor, and she spits into it. She is introduced to various foods, over which chants are sung. After the baskets have been opened, the girl steps forth, and she is decorated and paraded around to the accompaniment of musical instruments and chants.

      These actions commemorate events that occurred in the mythic first world. At that time a formless water serpent, Amaru, was the first female being. Her female followers stole ritual flutes, kuai, from the males of that age and initiated Amaru by placing her in a basket while they blessed food for her. Insects and worms tried to penetrate the basket, and eventually a small armadillo succeeded in tunneling through the earth into the centre of the women's house. The creator, Yaperikuli, led the men through this tunnel, and the resulting union of males and females marked the beginning of fertile life and the origin of all species. Thus, an individual girl's initiation is brought into alignment with cosmic fertility.

      Male initiations often employ the symbolism of female reproduction in their rites. Reference to menstruation in the symbolism or procedure of the rite sometimes occurs, or the ceremony is presented as a new conception and gestation of the initiate. As the generation of new life is at the heart of initiation, the biological and the ritual here intersect in deeply meaningful ways.

Forms of religious authority

      Initiations also mark the ascent of individuals into positions of religious authority. Priests, diviners, and spirit mediums play special roles in religious life, even though the nature of their authority varies greatly across South America.

      In many parts of South America, the shaman (shamanism), a religious specialist who enters into states of ecstasy, holds a prominent place in society. A shaman, it is believed, learns to control the passage of the soul out of and back into the body. According to South American tradition, the shaman not only controls the ecstasy of his or her own soul but also is devoted to the knowledge and care of the souls of others.

      The length of shamanic training varies widely from one South American culture to another. Among the Arecuna and Taulipang, Cariban groups of Venezuela and Brazil, the shamanic novitiate is reported to last from 10 to 20 years. In other traditions, by contrast, knowledge might be transmitted to the novice in relatively brief but intense periods of ecstasy. The knowledge imparted may include the use of different forms of fire (such as ritual fires, sparks struck from special elements, or the light contained in bright crystals), the use of musical instruments, and the mastery of primordial sounds (which are thought to have the power to re-create the bodies of suffering patients or to reorder the seasons to overcome drought or famine), esoteric languages, and sacred songs.

      The education of a shaman usually takes place under the direction of a master. In some traditions the master is an accomplished and practiced human shaman. In other traditions, including those of the Makiritare, the master is a supernatural being. The Makiritare believe that the sacred songs (ademi) were taught to shamans at the beginning of time by sadashe (masters of animals and prototypes of the contemporary animal species), who cut down the tree of life, survived the subsequent flood, cleared the first garden, and celebrated the first new harvest festival. In order to preserve their power, the ademi must be repeated in the exact phonetic pattern in which the sadashe first revealed them.

      The shaman's rattle is a most sacred instrument in South America, and the Warao (Warrau) of the Orinoco delta in Venezuela believe that the original shaman's rattle was brought back to earth after the primordial mythic shaman ascended to the heavenly realm to visit the spirit of the south. It is believed that the rattle embodies the sacred forces of the cosmos through its sounds, structural features, contents, and connection to shamanic ecstasy. The rattle's various parts also symbolize the structures of the world. The handle is the vertical path that rises into the heavenly vault. The heavenly realm is represented by the rattle's great head-gourd, which contains spirits. Joining the handle to the head represents the joining of male and female elements in the universe, an act of fertilization that gives the sounds of the instrument creative power. Safeguarding the rattle and playing it properly during ritual fulfills the destiny of the human spirit: to sustain the order of existence.

      Shamanic performances are generally theatrical, and the shaman's cure is believed miraculous. It is a deliberate exhibition of normally invisible powers, and it aims to astonish spectators and compel them to admire what is real and, therefore, life-giving.

Prophetic movements and eschatology

      Religious ideas and practices associated with the end of the world abound in South America. Eschatological (eschatology) movements have swept across South America since the time of European contact and, most probably, long before that. Many of the movements of resistance to colonialism have appeared as messianic revolts led by millennial prophets and saviours. Among various Guaraní groups in Paraguay, shamans led groups on messianic pilgrimages (pilgrimage), seeking to find the Land Without Evil. The very existence of the Land Without Evil offered the Guaraní hope, security, and courage in the face of the hunger, sickness, and death that followed the Spanish conquest. As these eschatological groups succumbed to failure, they concluded that, on their paths to paradise, they had been overtaken by tekò-achy, the weight of accumulating imperfections that blot out the light of the sun and weigh humans down so that they are incapable of ecstatic flight into the Land Without Evil.

      South American eschatological thinking and behaviour share common ground with Christian eschatology. There is no doubt that the religious life of native South Americans continues creatively to absorb and reinterpret elements in the world of contemporary experience.

Lawrence E. Sullivan

Additional Reading

The religious traditions of native North Americans are examined in Keith Basso, Wisdom Sits in Places: Landscape and Language Among the Western Apache (1996); Denise Lardner Carmody and John Tully Carmody, Native American Religions (1993); D.M. Dooling and Paul Jordan-Smith (eds.), I Become Part of It: Sacred Dimensions in Native American Life (1989); Sam Gill, Native American Traditions: Sources and Interpretations (1983); Arlene Hirschfelder and Paulette Molin, The Encyclopedia of Native American Religions (1992); Lee Irwin, The Dream Seekers: Native American Visionary Traditions of the Great Plains (1994); Richard K. Nelson, Make Prayers to the Raven: A Koyukon View of the Northern Forest (1983); Alfonso Ortiz, The Tewa World: Space, Time, Being, and Becoming in a Pueblo Society (1969); Dennis Tedlock and Barbara Tedlock (eds.), Teachings from the American Earth: Indian Religion and Philosophy (1975, reprinted 1992); and Ray A. Williamson and Claire R. Farrer (eds.), Earth and Sky: Visions of the Cosmos in Native American Folklore (1992).Native South American religious beliefs and practices are studied in John Bierhorst, The Mythology of South America (1988); Gary H. Gossen and Miguel Léon-Portilla (eds.), South and Meso-American Native Spirituality: From the Cult of the Feathered Serpent to the Theology of Liberation (1993); Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff, Yuruparí: Studies of an Amazonian Foundation Myth (1996); Lawrence E. Sullivan, Icanchu's Drum: An Orientation to Meaning in South American Religions (1988); Johannes Wilbert, Mystic Endowment: Religious Ethnography of the Warao Indians (1993); and Johannes Wilbert and Karin Simoneau (eds.), Folk Literature of South American Indians, 24 vol. (1970–92).

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