livestock farming

Introduction

      raising of animals for use or for pleasure. In this article, the discussion of livestock includes both beef and dairy cattle, pigs (pig), sheep, goats (goat), horses (horse), mules (mule), asses, buffalo, and camels (camel); the raising of birds commercially (poultry farming) for meat or eggs (i.e., chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, guinea fowl, and squabs) is treated separately. For further information on dairy-cattle breeds, feeding and management, see dairying. For a discussion of the food value and processing of meat products, see the article meat processing. For a further discussion of breeds of horses, see the article horse: Breeds of horses (horse).

      An efficient and prosperous animal agriculture historically has been the mark of a strong, well-developed nation. Such an agriculture permits a nation to store large quantities of grains and other foodstuffs in concentrated form to be utilized to raise animals for human consumption during such emergencies as war or natural calamity. Furthermore, meat has long been known for its high nutritive value, producing stronger, healthier people.

       ruminant (cud-chewing) animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats convert large quantities of pasture forage, harvested roughage, or by-product feeds, as well as nonprotein nitrogen such as urea, into meat, milk, and wool. Ruminants are therefore extremely important; more than 60 percent of the world's farmland is in meadows and pasture. Poultry also converts feed efficiently into protein; chickens, especially, are unexcelled in meat and egg production. Milk is one of the most complete and oldest known animal foods. Cows were milked as early as 9000 BC. Hippocrates, the Greek physician, recommended milk as a medicine in the 5th century BC. Sanskrit writings from ancient India refer to milk as one of the most essential human foods.

cattle

Beef cattle breeds

      The British Isles led the world in the development of the principal beef breeds (animal breeding); Herefords, Angus, beef Shorthorns, and Galloways all originated in either England (United Kingdom) or Scotland. Other breeds of greatest prominence today originated in India (Brahman), France (Charolais; Limousin; Normandy), Switzerland (Simmental), and Africa (Africander). The Hereford breed, considered to be the first to be developed in England, probably descended from white-faced, red-bodied cattle of Holland crossed with the smaller black Celtics that were native to England and especially to Herefordshire. By the middle of the 18th century the slow process of selective breeding that resulted in the smooth, meaty, and prolific Herefords (Hereford) had begun. The United States statesman Henry Clay of Kentucky imported the first purebred Herefords to America in 1817.

      The Hereford, which became the most popular beef breed of the United States, is distinguished by its white face, white flanks and underline, white stockings and tail, and white crest on the neck. Its body colour ranges from cherry to mahogany red. It is of medium size, with present-day breeders making successful efforts to increase both its rate of weight gain and mature size, in keeping with the demand for cheaper, leaner beef.

      The Polled Hereford is a separate breed of cattle originating from hornless mutations in 1901. It has the same general characteristics as the horned Hereford and has gained substantial favour because of its hornlessness and often faster rate of weight gain.

      The Aberdeen Angus breed originated in Scotland from naturally hornless aboriginal cattle native to the counties of Aberdeen and Angus. Solid black, occasionally with a spot of white underneath the rear flanks, the breed is noted for its smoothness, freedom from waste, and high quality of meat.

      Although the native home of the Galloway breed is the ancient region of Galloway in southwestern Scotland, it probably had a common origin with the Angus. The Galloway is distinguished by its coat of curly black hair. Though the breed has never attained the prominence of other beef breeds, it has been used extensively in producing blue-gray crossbred cattle, obtained by breeding white Shorthorn bulls to Galloway cows.

      The beef, or Scotch, Shorthorn breed developed from early cattle of England and northern Europe, selected for heavy milk production and generally known as Durham cattle. These were later selected for the compact, beefy type by the Scottish breeders. Emphasis on leaner, highquality carcasses in the second half of the 20th century has diminished the popularity of this breed. The Polled Shorthorn originated in 1888 from purebred, hornless mutations of the Shorthorn breed. The milking, or dual-purpose, Shorthorn, representing another segment of the parent Shorthorn breed, also was developed in England to produce an excellent flow of milk as well as an acceptable carcass, therefore resembling the original English type of Shorthorn. Shorthorns range in colour from red through roan, to white- or red-and-white-spotted.

      The Brahman breed originated in India, where 30 or more separate varieties exist. Preference is given to the Guzerat, Nellore, Gir, and Krishna Valley strains, which are characterized by a pronounced hump over the shoulders and neck; excessive skin on the dewlap and underline; large, droopy ears; and horns that tend to curve upward and rearward. Their colour ranges from near white through brown and brownish red to near black. Their popularity in other areas such as South America and Europe, into which they have been imported, is attributable mainly to their heat tolerance, drought resistance, and resistance to fever ticks and other insects. The Santa Gertrudis was developed by the King Ranch of Texas by crossing Brahman and Shorthorn cattle to obtain large, hearty, tick-resistant, red cattle that have proved to be popular not only in Texas but in many regions along the semitropical Gulf Coast. Until the tick was eradicated in the southern and southwestern United States, Brahman crosses were raised almost exclusively there.

      Several lesser breeds have been developed from crosses of the Brahman on other beef breeds such as: the Charbray ( Charolais), Braford (Hereford), Brangus (Angus), Brahorn (Shorthorn), and Beefmaster (Brahman-Shorthorn-Hereford).

      The Charolais breed, which originated in the Charolais region of France, has become quite popular in the United States for crossing on the British breeds for production of market cattle. The superior size, rate of gain, and heavy muscling of the pure French Charolais and the hybrid vigour accruing from the crossing of nonrelated breeds promise an increased popularity of this breed. Many American Charolais, however, carry significant amounts of Brahman blood, with a corresponding reduction in size, rate of gain, and muscling. Important in France, the Charolais is the foremost meat-cattle breed in Europe.

      The Limousin breed, which originated in west central France, is second in importance to the Charolais as a European meat breed. Limousin cattle, often longer, finer boned, and slightly smaller than the Charolais, are also heavily muscled and relatively free from excessive deposits of fat.

      The most prevalent breed of France, the Normandy, is smaller than the Charolais or Limousin and has been developed as a dual-purpose breed useful for both milk and meat production. A fourth important breed is the Maine–Anjou, which is the largest of the French breeds.

      The Simmental accounts for nearly half of the cattle of Switzerland, Austria, and the western areas of Germany. Smaller than the Charolais and Limousin, the Simmental was developed for milk, meat, and draft. It is yellowish brown or red with characteristic white markings.

Beef cattle feed

      Beef cattle can utilize roughages of both low and high quality, including pasture forage, hay, silage, corn (maize) fodder, straw, and grain by-products. Cattle also utilize nonprotein nitrogen in the form of urea and biuret feed supplements, which can supply from one-third to one-half of all the protein needs of beef animals. Nonprotein nitrogen is relatively cheap and abundant and is usually fed in a grain ration or in liquid supplements with molasses and phosphoric acid or is mixed with silage at ensiling time; it also may be used in supplement blocks for range cattle or as part of range pellets. Other additions to diet include corn (maize), sorghum, milo, wheat, barley, or oats. Fattening cattle are usually fed from 2.2 to 3.0 percent of their live weight per day, depending on the amount of concentrates in the ration and the rate at which they are being fattened. Such cattle gain from 2.2 to 3.0 pounds (1.0 to 1.4 kilograms) per day and require from 1.3 to 3.0 pounds (0.6 to 1.4 kilograms) of crude protein, according to their weight and stage of fattening. Up until the early 1970s, when the practice was prohibited, fattening cattle were given the synthetic hormone diethylstilbestrol as a supplement in their feed or in ear implants. The use of this synthetic hormone results in a 10 to 20 percent increase in daily gain with less feed required per pound of gain. Synthetic vitamin A sources have become so cheap as to permit the use of 10,000 to 30,000 International Units per day for cattle being fattened for market (finished) in enclosures bare of vegetation (drylots) used for this purpose. The economics of modern cattle finishing encourages the use of all-concentrate rations or a minimum of roughage, or roughage substitutes including oyster shells, sand, and rough plastic pellets. Corn (maize) silage produces heavy yields per acre at a low cost and makes excellent roughage for beef-cattle finishing.

      Beef cows kept for the production of feeder calves are usually maintained on pasture and roughages with required amounts of protein supplement and some grain being fed only to first-calf heifers or very heavy milking cows. Most beef cows tend to be overnourished and may become excessively fat and slow to conceive unless they happen to be exceptionally heavy milkers. Most pregnant cows go into the winter in satisfactory condition and need to gain only enough to offset the weight of the fetus and related membranes. They can therefore utilize coarser roughages, having a total daily crude protein requirement of from 1.3 to 1.7 pounds (0.58 to 0.76 kilograms). Daily vitamin A supplement at the rate of 18,000 to 22,000 International Units per cow is advisable unless the roughages are of a green, leafy kind and the fall pasture has been of excellent quality. Feed requirements for bulls vary with age, condition, and activity, from 2.0 to 2.4 pounds of crude protein per day; from 25,000 to 40,000 International Units of vitamin A; and during breeding periods nearly the same energy intake as calves or short yearlings being finished for market, the main feeding requirement being to prevent their becoming excessively fat.

      All cattle require salt (sodium chloride) and a palatable source of both calcium and phosphorus, such as limestone and steamed bone meal. Most commercial salts carry trace minerals as relatively cheap insurance against deficiencies that occasionally exist in scattered locations.

Beef cattle management (farm management)

      Beef production has become highly scientific and efficient because of the high cost of labour, land, feed, and money. Most brood-cow herds, which require a minimum of housing and equipment, are managed so as to reduce costs through pasture improvement and are typically found in relatively large areas and herds. Other aspects of management include performance testing for regular production of offspring that will gain rapidly and produce acceptable carcasses and the use of preventive medicine, feed additives, pregnancy checks, fertility testing of sires, artificial insemination of some purebred and commercial herds, protection against insects and parasites, both internal and external, adequate but not excessive feed intakes, and a minimum of handling.

      Calving of beef cows is arranged to occur in the spring months to take advantage of the large supplies of cheap and high-quality pasture forages. Fall calving is less common and occurs generally in regions where winters are moderate and supplies of pasture forage are available throughout the year. Calves are normally weaned at eight to ten months of age because beef cows produce very little milk past that stage and also because they need to be rested before dropping their next calf. Feeder calves sell by the pound, so that weight for age is even more important than conformation or shape. Consequently, crossbred cattle are used; their hybrid vigour results in greater breeding efficiency and milk production on the part of the dam, as well as greater birth weight, vigour, and gaining ability on the part of the offspring.

      Beef cows are normally first bred at 15 to 18 months. The gestation period is 283 days, and the interval between estrus, or periods in which the dam is in heat, is 21 days. Cows should produce a living calf every 12 months. Pasture breeding, in which nature is allowed to take its course, calls for one mature bull for every 25 cows, whereas hand breeding, in which control is exercised by the breeder, requires half as many bulls. Artificial insemination permits one outstanding sire to produce thousands of calves annually.

Diseases of beef and dairy cattle

      Dairy cattle are susceptible to the same diseases as beef cattle. Many diseases and pests plague the cattle industries of the world, the more serious ones being prevalent in the humid and less developed countries. One of the more common diseases to be found in the developed countries is brucellosis, which has been controlled quite successfully through vaccination and testing. This disease produces undulant fever in humans through milk from infected cows. leptospirosis, prevalent in warm-blooded animals and humans, is caused by a spirochete and results in fever, loss of weight, and abortion. Bovine tuberculosis has been largely eliminated; where it has not, it can infect other warm-blooded animals, including humans. Test and slaughter programs have proved effective. rabies, caused by a specific virus that also can infect most warm-blooded animals, is usually transmitted through the bite of infected animals, either wild or domestic. foot-and-mouth disease has been eliminated from most of North America, some Central American countries, Australia, and New Zealand. The rest of the world is still plagued by the disease, which attacks all cloven-footed animals. Humans are mildly susceptible to this organism. Successful vaccinations have been developed for blackleg, malignant edema, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (or red nose), and several other diseases. Anaplasmosis, common to most tropical and semitropical regions, is spread by the bite of mosquitoes and flies. anthrax, caused by a generally fatal bacterial infection, has been largely eliminated in the United States and western Europe. rinderpest, still common to Asia and Europe, is caused by a specific virus that produces high fever and diarrhea. An infectious fever sometimes called nagana, caused by the tsetse fly, attacks both cattle and horses and is prevalent in central and southern Africa, as well as in the Philippines. Grass tetany and milk fever both result from metabolic disturbances. bloat, caused by rapid gas formation in the rumen, or first compartment of the stomach, is sometimes fatal unless relieved. Pinkeye (infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis) is an infectious inflammation of the eyes spread by flies or dust and is most serious in cattle having white pigmentation around one or both eyes. mastitis, an inflammation of the udder, is caused by rough handling or by infection. Vibriosis, a venereal disease that causes abortion; pneumonia, an inflammation of the lungs; and shipping fever (pasteurellosis) all cause serious losses and are difficult to control except through good management. Broad-spectrum antibiotics (antibiotics that are effective against various microorganisms), as well as powerful and specific pharmaceuticals, are effective and profitable means of keeping cattle herds healthy. Vermifuges, which destroy or expel parasitic worms, and insecticides, which kill harmful insects, are also highly effective and much used.

Wesley Patterson Garrigus

Pigs

 Pigs are relatively easy to raise indoors or outdoors, and they can be slaughtered with a minimum of equipment because of their moderate size (see meat processing: Hogs (meat processing)). Pigs are monogastric, so, unlike ruminants (ruminant), they are unable to utilize large quantities of forage and must be given concentrate feed. Furthermore, pigs have only one primary economic use—as a source of meat ( pork) and lard—unlike most other livestock, such as cattle and sheep, which have many other important economic uses.

Breeds

       Selected breeds of pigs Selected breeds of pigsThere are more than 300 known breeds or local varieties of pigs (suid) throughout the world. Following is a brief description of the better-known commercial breeds.

 The Hampshire pig, which originated from the Norfolk thin-rind breed of England, is black with a white belt completely encircling its body, including both front legs and feet. There should be no white on the head or the ham.

 The Yorkshire pig, which originated early in the 19th century in England, where it was considered a bacon type, is long, lean, and trim with white hair and skin. Found in most countries, this breed is probably the most widely distributed in the world.

 The Duroc-Jersey (Duroc) breed originated in the eastern United States from red pigs brought by Christopher Columbus (Columbus, Christopher) and Hernando de Soto (Soto, Hernando de). The modern Duroc, originated from crosses of the Jersey Red of New Jersey and the Duroc of New York in the late 19th century, ranges from golden-red to mahogany-red in colour, with no black allowed. This breed proved particularly suitable for feeding in the U.S. Corn Belt (parts of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Missouri, and Oklahoma; all of Iowa) and has been extensively used in Argentina, Canada, Chile, and Uruguay. It is recognized for the quality of its meat.

 The Poland China originated about 1860 in southern Ohio from a number of different breeds common to that area. The Spotted Poland China originated in Indiana about 1915 from crosses of the Poland China and the native spotted pigs.

      The Chester White, which originated in Chester county, Pa., after 1818, is restricted to the United States and Canada.

 The Berkshire, which originated in Berkshire, Eng., about 1770, is used for fresh pork production in England and Japan; a larger bacon type has been evolved in Australia and New Zealand. Like the Duroc breed, the Berkshire is noted for the quality of its meat.

 The Landrace is a white, lop-eared pig found in most countries in central and eastern Europe, with local varieties in Denmark, Germany, The Netherlands, and Sweden. World attention was first drawn to the Landrace by Denmark, where since 1895 a superior pig has been produced, designed for Denmark's export trade in Wiltshire bacon to England and developed by progeny testing (the selection of boars for breeding on the basis of the scientific assessment of their progeny). Sweden also has progeny tested from Landrace stock but for a shorter period. Pigs from Sweden were first exported to England in 1953, when prices of up to £1,000 were paid. This resulted in a worldwide Landrace explosion, and most major pig-producing countries have since taken stock.

 The importance of the Asian pig breeds was recognized in the use of Chinese (China) and “Siamese” pigs from southeastern Asia in the improvement of early European and North American breeds and is reflected in the name of the world-famous Poland China. China leads the world in pig numbers, and pork is traditional in the Chinese diet.

Breeding and growth

      Purebred production, or line breeding, is used to concentrate desired genes—for example, litter size or growth rate—within a population of animals. White pig breeds are generally noted for large litters (a maternal characteristic) and coloured breeds for rapid growth and meat quality (paternal characteristics).

      Before 1980 most genetic material was available through purebreds, such as Yorkshires, Hampshires, and Landraces, raised by many small producers. Commercial breeding companies in the 1980s began developing different lines of pigs based on the genetics of the pure breeds in a system called crossbreeding. Modern swine crossbreeding techniques involve mating a boar (male) from a breed with rapid weight growth and sows (females) selected for their history of producing large litters.

      Sows have a gestation period of 110–120 days with a 21-day interval between periods of estrus, the time during which they will accept mating by a boar. Sows have an average litter size of 12 piglets (somewhat fewer for a first pregnancy and somewhat more for certain Asian breeds), each piglet with a birth weight of about 1.4 kg (3 pounds), and typically produce two litters per year. A mature boar can mate as often as five to seven times per week. Gilts (young females) are usually mated by eight months of age and typically have a reproductive life of three to six litters, although individual sows may have 10 or more litters.

      Most countries with developed pork production rely on artificial insemination. In fact, the semen from one boar ejaculate can be diluted to make 20 inseminations, each containing two to six billion sperm. In addition to reducing the number of boars needed for breeding, artificial insemination allows the selection of boars with the highest genetic merit, which results in more rapid improvement of the herd population. The semen may be collected and processed from boars raised by producers or purchased from stud farms that specialize in semen collection and marketing.

      Piglets move to the sow's udder to begin nursing moments after birth and are weaned between two and five weeks, with about a 15 to 20 percent pre-weaning mortality rate from stillbirths and being crushed by the lactating sow. Pigs that weigh between about 18 and 57 kg (40 and 125 pounds) are known as growing pigs, from about 57 to 100 kg (125 to 220 pounds) as finishing pigs, and more than about 100 kg as hogs or market pigs because they are ready for butchering. Hogs are typically brought to market when they are five to six months old. Most males are castrated shortly after birth to avoid an off-flavour in their meat. Castrated males are called barrows.

Production systems

 Pork production can lend itself to mechanization and reduced use of high-priced labour. Self-feeders, diets composed of grains and oilseed by-products, and construction of slotted floors and outside tanks or lagoons for manure storage have become almost universal among large-scale commercial producers in developed countries. Particularly in developed countries, most pigs are raised indoors with various means of environmental control. Air-conditioned barns for excessively hot summers and heated floors and space heating or heat lamps for cold winters are widespread.

      Production methods have evolved into systems divided by the stages of the pig's life cycle: birth, weaning, growth, finishing, and market. The three common operations are farrow-to-finish, farrow-to-feeder, and feeder-to-market. Farrowing refers to a sow giving birth. The farrow-to-finish operation is the historic foundation of the pork industry and includes all phases: breeding, gestation, farrowing, lactation, weaning, and subsequently growing the pigs to market weight. Typically, these operations have been on family farms, where owners raise pigs along with a grain operation in which much of the grain is fed to the pigs, saving the owner the cost of transporting and selling the grain. Additionally, the pig manure provides an excellent source of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for fertilizing cropland. Historically, farrow-to-finish has been the most profitable type of hog enterprise. Many small-farm holders have full-time jobs in a nonfarming occupation and breed hogs to supplement their income.

      Many pigs are now raised in vertically integrated systems, where ownership is maintained from the production farm through the meat-processing plant to the grocery store.

      Farrow-to-feeder operations have the highest labour requirements, and many producers specialize in this part of the production cycle. It includes the management of the breeding herd, gestating sows, and piglets until they reach the growing (feeder) stage. The farmer retains control of the piglets until they are sold to another entity for feeder-to-market production. There are two common sale times—at early weaning, when a piglet weighs 5 to 7 kg (11 to 15 pounds), and at the start of the growing pig stage, when it weighs 18 to 25 kg (40 to 55 pounds) at about eight weeks. Most of these pigs are sold on a long-standing contract with a person involved in the final stage of production, feeder-to-market.

      Feeder-to-market production has the lowest labour and management requirements. The producer in this stage purchases the feeder pigs and raises them to market weights in about 16 weeks. This part of the cycle requires the most feed and produces the most manure; therefore, it fits well with grain producers who have a lot of grain for feed and farmland that can use the pigs' manure as fertilizer. It is the least profitable per head, however, and two or three times as many pigs must be produced to earn as much as a farrow-to-finish producer.

Basic dietary requirements

      Pigs have the same basic nutritional requirements as humans, which include water, various vitamins (vitamin) and minerals, protein for growth and repair, carbohydrates (carbohydrate) for energy, and fat to supply essential fatty acids (fatty acid) that are not synthesized in adequate quantities. Water is often a forgotten nutrient because it is usually readily available. As a guide, pigs need two to three times as much water as dry feed, depending on environmental temperatures.

      The fat-soluble vitamins that must be added to swine diets include vitamins A (vitamin A), D (vitamin D), E (vitamin E), and K (vitamin K). Water-soluble vitamins—in particular, the vitamin B complex—that must be added include niacin, pantothenic acid, riboflavin, and 12 (vitamin B12). biotin, folic acid, and choline are sometimes recommended in diets of young pigs and the breeding herd. Vitamin requirements are usually listed as International Units (International Unit), milligrams, or micrograms per unit of feed.

      Mineral needs can be divided into major minerals and trace minerals. Major minerals that need to be added to the diet include calcium, phosphorus, and common salt. Requirements for major minerals are usually listed as a percentage of the diet. Trace minerals that need to be added to pig diets include iron, zinc, copper, manganese, iodine, and selenium. Although other minerals are required for growth, they are present in adequate amounts in feedstuffs. Requirements for trace minerals are usually listed as parts per million or milligrams per kilogram.

      There is sufficient fat (about 1 percent) in the grain or feed of a pig's diet to supply all of its essential fatty acid requirements. Protein is a source of amino acids (amino acid), 10 of which are deemed essential dietary requirements for pig nutrition. An additional 11 or so amino acids can be synthesized by the pig's metabolism and, although required for muscle growth, do not need to be present in the diet.

       corn (maize) is a favourite energy or carbohydrate source for pigs, but wheat, sorghum, milo, barley, and oats also are used if the price is favourable. Wherever abundant and reasonable in price, soybean oil meal is the favoured source of protein and amino acids, and other oil meals and high-protein by-products are used in most countries.

Special dietary requirements

      The nutritional requirements of pigs vary according to their age, sex, and activities. For example, a boar's nutritional requirements are based on its weight and the number of times it has ejaculated, whether by inseminating sows or by having its semen collected for artificial insemination.

      Nutrient requirements during gestation are much lower than would be expected; the major concern is that the sows do not become overweight before giving birth. Gilts should gain about 45 kg (100 pounds) during pregnancy. This weight gain includes about 14 kg (30 pounds) for offspring, another 14 kg for products of conception (increased weight of uterus and fluids), and 18 kg (40 pounds) of general weight gain. Sows, which have already produced litters, should gain 27 to 32 kg (60 to 70 pounds). A daily balanced diet of 1.8 kg (4 pounds) of feed will meet the nutritional requirements of gestating pigs in temperate environmental conditions.

      After farrowing, a lactating sow's first milk is called colostrum, which lasts about three days. During this period, a sow needs 2 to 3 kg (4.5 to 6.5 pounds) of feed per day. Colostrum is very high in nutrients and factors that provide passive immunity to nursing piglets. This passive immunity is essential for disease resistance before piglets develop their own immunity, so all newborn piglets need to nurse immediately. Sows usually nurse their litters for two to five weeks, depending on the management system. Lactating sows have high nutrient requirements and at peak production may generate as much as 6 kg (13 pounds) of milk per day for their offspring. To prevent large weight losses in the sow, they need to be fed as much feed as they can consume. This can be as much as 10 to 12 kg (22 to 26 pounds) at three or more weeks after farrowing.

      Weaned pigs are usually moved to a nursery where the temperature can be kept higher than 27 °C (80 °F) until they are about four weeks old. Piglets typically stay in the nursery for six to eight weeks. Newly weaned pigs have an immature digestive system, and their first diet after weaning until about four weeks of age should contain dried milk products in addition to energy and protein sources. Typically, nursery pigs are fed two to four different diets as they grow.

      Growing pigs should be fed at least four distinct diets to optimize gain. As a pig grows, it eats more each day, but the nutrient density can be reduced.

Disease prevention

      The health of swine can best be ensured by a combination of prevention and treatment of diseases. Prevention includes both biosecurity and vaccination. Biosecurity includes isolating pigs from other species, both domestic and feral, as well as isolating pigs from each other by age. A major health risk is the introduction of new pigs into a resident population, because pigs brought from other farms are likely to carry disease-causing organisms to which the resident population has not developed any immunity. Human visitors also pose some risk, which can be mitigated by having them put on clean clothes and boots at a swine facility. A strict sanitation and traffic control program minimizes opportunities for new disease organisms to enter the herd, while systematic vaccination reduces the likelihood of routine diseases. A comprehensive herd health program also includes optimum nutrition, comfortable housing, excellent ventilation, and vigorous parasite control.

      Safe and effective vaccines (vaccine) are available for many swine diseases, and producers work with their veterinarians to develop health programs that will alleviate infections of diseases prevalent in their local areas. Antibiotics (antibiotic) may be added to the feed or water or be given by injection. Low-level doses of antibiotics, known as subtherapeutic, in the feed assist in preventing various bacteria from expressing disease symptoms. Infected pigs exhibiting disease symptoms may be treated with therapeutic levels. Producers treating pigs with any medication must be aware of and follow minimum withdrawal periods before the pigs are marketed.

      Improvements in breeding, disease control, management, and feed formulation have all contributed to faster gains and lower feed requirements per kilogram of weight gain. The use of antibiotics began in the early 1950s in the United States, and the practice immediately resulted in increasing the rate of weight gain in nursery pigs (especially in regions with less favourable sanitation) by as much as 20 percent and by about 5 percent in pigs weighing more than 50 kg (110 pounds). Antibiotics became a standard ingredient in most young pigs' diets. Nevertheless, many European countries have restricted subtherapeutic use of antibiotics for growth promotion in livestock diets because of concern that antibiotic-resistant bacteria that infect humans may develop.

Common diseases

      Pigs are subject to many infectious and parasitic diseases. Diseases can be divided into infectious and noninfectious. Infectious diseases are transmitted between animals and include various bacterial, viral, and mycoplasmal (mycoplasma) organisms, as well as parasites. Noninfectious diseases include poisonous plants, toxins, nutritional excesses and deficiencies, and metabolic diseases such as ulcers (ulcer).

      Common diseases controllable by vaccination include transmissible gastroenteritis, which is often fatal to piglets (even when vaccinated); leptospirosis, which can also infect humans and most warm-blooded animals; pseudorabies, a viral disease that causes high mortality in piglets; and erysipelas, a bacterial infection that causes inflammation of the skin and swelling and stiffness of the joints. cholera and foot-and-mouth disease, formerly controlled by vaccination, are now usually controlled by slaughter of infected herds. Necrotic enteritis and other infections of the intestinal tract are largely controlled by antibiotics. Atrophic rhinitis produces sneezing, crooked snouts, and poor performance and is controlled by a combination of vaccination and antibiotics.

      Parasitic diseases can be divided into external and internal parasites. External parasites include lice (louse) and mites (mite) (which cause mange). Effective topical and internal preparations are available for their control or elimination. Internal parasites include various worms, which can be controlled through effective treatment with anthelmintics (anthelmintic) and through improvements in sanitation. Internal parasites are less of a problem when pigs are raised on slatted floors, which reduce spreading and re-infection by separating the pigs from their manure and other intermediary parasite hosts.

      Common noninfectious diseases include mycotoxins (mycotoxin) (produced by molds (mold) and fungi (fungus) present on various feedstuffs), ulcers, mange, and feeds accidentally contaminated by pesticides (pesticide). Mycotoxins are best prevented by timely harvest of the grains and drying them to a moisture content that is not conducive to mold and fungal growth, usually 14 percent or less. Older nonpregnant pigs can be given lightly contaminated feed with minimal risk, whereas young pigs are more susceptible to mycotoxins.

      Nutritional diseases are rare as a result of the availability of quality feedstuffs and excellent information regarding nutrient requirements. Nutrient deficiencies are usually the result of improper diet formulation over an extended time and occur most often in young, rapidly growing pigs. Nutrient excesses are not common, the major risk being that excesses of one or two nutrients may bind to other nutrients, thereby interfering with their efficient absorption in the digestive tract. Large nutrient excesses or deficiencies also may cause pigs to reduce their feed intake to prevent toxicity or nutrient disturbances.

Palmer J. Holden

sheep

Wesley Patterson Garrigus

      Sheep are able to subsist on sparse forage and limited water. Their wool is light in relation to its value and is relatively imperishable, both of which qualities enable wide exportation. During the 20th century, sheep-raising in some areas, particularly the western United States, has declined in favour of more profitable cattle.

Breeds

       Selected Breeds of Sheep Selected Breeds of SheepThe gestation period for sheep is 147 days with 16.7 days between periods of estrus, which last 29 hours. The average number of lambs raised per hundred ewes is 91, and the average fleece weight per shearing is 8.34 pounds (3.78 kilograms).

      Of more than 200 breeds of sheep in existence in the world, the majority are of limited interest except in the localities where they are raised. Sheep breeds are generally classified as medium wool, long wool, and fine wool. Of the medium wool breeds the Hampshire, Shropshire, Southdown, Suffolk, Oxford, and Dorset all originated in England. The Cheviot and Black Faced Highland originated in Scotland. The Panama, Columbia, and Targhee were developed in the United States, and the Corriedale in New Zealand. After World War II such larger breeds as the Suffolk and Hampshire increased in popularity at the expense of the smaller breeds.

      The long wool breeds, including the Cotswold, Lincoln, Leicester, and Romney, were all developed in England and, in addition to mutton, produce wool of unusually long fibre length that is suitable for rugs and coarse fabrics.

      The original fine-wool breed was the Merino, developed in Spain from stock native to that country before the Christian era. Though medieval Spain sought to preserve a monopoly on the Merino, the sheep gradually spread to France, Italy, and the rest of Europe. Today the Merino is prominent in Australia, the United States, Russia, South Africa, Argentina, France, and Germany; the breed is designated by various names such as Australian Merino in Australia and Merino Transhumante in Spain. The Merino was the main ancestor of the French Rambouillet, somewhat larger and less wrinkled than the Merino. This breed prospers in the western ranges of the United States, where two-thirds of that country's sheep are raised. The Corriedale breed, adapted to both farms and ranges, is especially valued in New Zealand and Australia. Most commercial sheep today represent two-breed or three-breed crosses, with white-faced crossbred ewes preferred in the range areas and a black-faced sire, such as Suffolk or Hampshire, preferred for market lambs, which are either finished for slaughter or sold as breeding ewes.

Feeding

      Sheep are excellent foragers and, being ruminants, can utilize both pasture forage and harvested roughage. Selective in their grazing habits, they prefer short grass when available. Pregnant ewes can run on late pasture as long as it is available and abundant but in winter subsist satisfactorily on well-cured legume hay or mixed hay carrying a high percentage of legume. Corn (maize) silage is relatively inexpensive and relished by sheep; lactating ewes and lambs being finished for market usually require some concentrate, with corn (maize) favoured because of its high energy content and reasonable cost.

      Range sheep grazing selectively on native plants frequently develop mild deficiencies of protein, energy, phosphorus, and vitamin A, especially when plants are mature or dormant or are eaten by ewes in the later stages of pregnancy or lactation. Broad spectrum antibiotics at the rate of five to 10 milligrams per pound of feed are normally used in all lamb finishing rations to prevent digestive disturbances and infections.

Management

      Range sheep are normally white-faced crosses carrying both long-wool and Rambouillet breeding and are consequently very hardy and thrifty. They are wintered in bands, or flocks, of from 1,000 to 4,000 head at lower altitudes, and are moved in bands ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 head to summer range at much higher altitude, sometimes 300 miles (480 kilometres) from their winter quarters. Each flock is tended by a sheepherder and his dogs who move systematically from one grazing area to another. The herder often lives in a covered wagon or truck and may spend weeks at a time in complete solitude. The most famous sheepherders are the Basques, who emigrated widely from their home in Spain. The breeding ewes are mated to Suffolk or Hampshire rams and produce lambs during the late winter or early spring so that the lambs will be old enough to move to summer grazing without difficulty.

      In many parts of the world small flocks are kept partly as scavengers to clean up fence rows, weeds, brush, and other undesirable forage, but this is a diminishing role. Large flocks are maintained partly for wool and partly for market lambs. Lambs are usually dropped in the spring and are sold at ages of from three to eight months and weights of around 40 pounds (18 kilograms) for Easter lambs, and 100 pounds (45 kilograms) for the usual market lambs. Sheep are sheared in the spring after the worst winter weather has passed. Some breeds are noted for producing a high percentage of twins, and others, such as the Dorset, for both high frequency of twins and heavy milk production. Shepherds frequently switch a newly born twin lamb to a ewe that has just lost a single lamb, thereby utilizing the extra milk. This practice requires skill and experience, since a mother ewe recognizes her own lamb by both its smell and the sound of its call.

Diseases

      Such internal parasites as the tapeworm (cestodiasis) and several species of roundworms (nematode) that infest the gastrointestinal tract are perhaps the greatest scourge of sheep, but modern vermifuges are quite effective against these. Dips are used to combat such external parasites as ticks, lice, and mites. Foot rot, caused by an infection of the soft tissue between the toes, results in extreme lameness and even loss of the hoof. The more persistent type is caused by a specific organism that is difficult to treat. The pain and the restricted movement of infected sheep result in rapid loss of weight. Enterotoxemia, or pulpy kidney, affects lambs at two to six weeks of age, especially those starting on unusually lush or rich feeds. A vaccination is quite effective in preventing this otherwise costly ailment.

Goats (goat)

       Selected breeds of goats Selected breeds of goatsProbably first domesticated in the East, perhaps during prehistoric times, the goat has long been used as a source of milk, cheese, mohair, and meat. Its skin has been valued as a source for leather. In China, Great Britain, Europe, and North America, the goat is primarily a milk producer. By good management its limited (six months per year) breeding season and the consequent difficulty of maintaining a level supply of milk throughout the year, can be overcome. The goat is especially adapted to small-scale production of milk for the family table; one or two goats supply sufficient milk for a family throughout the year and can be maintained economically in quarters where it would not be practical to keep a cow.

      Pure-white goat's milk compares favourably with cow's milk in flavour and keeping qualities under sanitary conditions. It has certain characteristics differing from cow's milk that make it more easily digested by infants, invalids, and persons with allergies. Goat flesh is edible, that from young kids being quite tender and more delicate in flavour than lamb, which it resembles. Goat flesh is much prized in the Mediterranean countries, particularly in Spain, Italy, the south of France, and Greece. The Angora (Angora goat) and Cashmere breeds are famous for their fine wool or mohair.

      The many breeds may be roughly grouped: the prickeared—e.g., Swiss goats; the eastern, or Nubian, with long, drooping ears; and the wool goat—e.g., Angora. While it is usually easy to distinguish goats from sheep, certain hair breeds of the latter are, to the layman, only distinguishable from goats by the direction of the tail, upward in goats, downward in sheep.

      Of the Swiss goats, from which many of the best modern breeds are derived, the Toggenburg and Saanen are most important. The French breeds have much Swiss blood. In Germany the many varieties trace to Swiss breeds, which are also popular throughout Scandinavia and the Netherlands.

      The Maltese goat, an important source of milk on the island of Malta, probably contains eastern blood. Many goats are found in Spain, northern Africa, and Italy, among them the Murcian, Granada, and La Mancha.

      Nubians are African goats, chiefly Egyptian. They are usually large, short-haired goats with large lop ears and Roman noses. They may be of solid colour, parti-coloured, or spotted. The goats in Israel and Syria have long hair and large lop ears and most commonly are solid black or with white spots. Most Indian varieties, the best of which come from the Yamuna River area, have lop ears.

      In Britain, the native goat was small, with short legs, long hair—usually gray but of no fixed colour—and with no definite markings. The widespread use of pedigree males, mostly of Swiss extraction, to improve the milk yield, has resulted in the almost total disappearance of the native types.

Horses (horse)

      Horses were among the last species of livestock to be domesticated. Domestication took place at least as early as 3000 BC, probably in the Near East. The wild ass, which when domesticated is usually called a donkey, was first domesticated in Egypt about 3400 BC. See also the article horse.

Breeds

       Selected breeds of light horsesTable of Selected Breeds of Light Horses (Selected breeds of light horses) The Arabian (Arabian horse), the oldest recognized breed of horse in the world, is thought to have originated in Arabia before AD 600. Though its history is lost in the past, the breed probably descended from the Libyan horse, which, in turn, was probably preceded by horses of similar characteristics in Assyria, Greece, and Egypt as early as 1000 BC. The Arabian may be bay, gray, chestnut, brown, black, or white in hair colour, but always has a black skin. It ranges from 14.1 to 15.1 hands (4.7 to 5.0 feet, or 1.4 to 1.5 metres) in height. The Arabian horse has one lumbar vertebra less than other breeds of horse and is characterized by the high carriage of its head, long neck, and spirited action.

      The Thoroughbred racing horse is descended from three desert stallions brought to England between 1689 and 1724; all of the Thoroughbreds of the world today trace their ancestry to one of these stallions.

      The American Saddle Horse (American Saddlebred horse), which originated in the United States, was formed by crossing Thoroughbreds, Morgans, and Standardbreds on native mares possessing an easy gait. The American Saddle Horse is 15 to 16 hands (5 to 5.3 feet, or 1.5 to 1.6 metres) in height. Its colours are bay, brown, black, gray, and chestnut. There are two distinct types of the American Saddle Horse: three-gaited and five-gaited. The three natural gaits are walk, trot, and canter. Three-gaited saddle horses are shown with a short tail and cropped mane. They often have slightly less style and finish than the five-gaited horse. The five-gaited saddle horse has the three natural gaits plus the rack and a slow gait, which is usually a stepping pace. The American Saddle Horse is also used as a fine harness horse mainly for show.

      The American Quarter Horse traces to the Thoroughbred, and includes the blood of other breeds, such as the Morgan, the American Saddle Horse, and several strains of native horses. This fast, muscular horse has been raced, ridden in rodeos, and used for herding cattle.

      The typical Quarter Horse is 15 to 16 hands tall and is of powerful build, suitable for both racing and the rough life of a cow pony. This horse is noted for its intelligence, easy disposition, and cow sense.

      The Tennessee walking horse, or plantation horse, traces mainly to the Standardbred but also includes Thoroughbred and American Saddle Horse blood. The Tennessee Walking Horse is noted for its running walk, a slowgliding gait in which the hind foot oversteps the print of the front foot by as much as 24 inches (600 millimetres). This breed is 15.2 to 16 hands high and is bay, black, chestnut, roan, or gray in colour.

      The Morgan traces directly to “the Justin Morgan horse,” foaled in 1793, of unknown breeding but no doubt tracing to Arabian stock. A dark bay in colour, Morgan stood 14 hands high and weighed 950 pounds (430 kilograms). He was a heavily muscled, short-legged horse of great style, quality, and endurance. He is the world's best example of prepotency, since he alone founded the Morgan breed. The Morgan is used for both riding and driving. It ranges from 14 to 16 hands in height and resembles the Arabian in size, conformation, quality, and endurance.

      The American Standardbred originated around New York City during the first half of the 19th century from Thoroughbred, Morgan, Norfolk Trotter, Arabian, Barb, and pacers of mixed breeding. The modern Standardbred is smaller than the Thoroughbred, ranging from 15 to 16 hands in height and averaging about 15.2 hands. In racing condition it weighs from 900 to 1,000 pounds (410–450 kilograms). Stallions in stud condition average from 1,100 to 1,200 pounds (500–545 kilograms). Compared with the Thoroughbred, the Standardbred is longer-bodied, shorter-legged, heavier-boned, and stockier in build. Prevailing colours are bay, brown, and chestnut.

      Draft (draft animal) horses have largely been supplanted by trucks and tractors in the developed countries of the world. Major draft breeds include the Percheron, developed in France; the Clydesdale of Scotland; the Shire of England; the Suffolk of England (United Kingdom); and the Belgian of Belgium. These breeds range from 15¹/₂ to 17 hands in height at the withers; at maturity the mares weigh from 1,600 to 2,000 pounds (720–900 kilograms) and the stallions from 1,900 to 2,200 pounds (860–1000 kilograms).

       Selected breeds of ponies Selected breeds of poniesThe more popular pony breeds are the Shetland (Shetland pony), which originated in the Shetland Islands, and the Hackney, of English origin. Ponies must be under 14.2 hands in height at the withers and are used both for show and for children's pleasure.

Feeding

      The specific and exact nutrient requirements of horses are poorly understood. Usually, these may be supplied economically from pasture forage, harvested roughages, and concentrates. Good quality grass-legume pastures, in addition to iodized or trace-mineralized salt, will supply adequate nutrients to maintain an adult horse at light work (such as pulling a small cart) or mares during pregnancy. Lush, early spring pasture is very high in water and protein contents and may need to be supplemented with a high-energy source, such as grain, to meet the needs of horses performing medium to heavy work (such as plowing). Conversely, late fall- and winter-pasture forage is low in water and protein and may require protein and vitamin A supplementation. High-quality legume hays, such as early bloom alfalfa, are preferred for horses, especially those that are growing or lactating. Moldy or dusty feeds should be avoided because horses are extremely susceptible to forage poisoning and respiratory complications. Grass hays, such as timothy, prairie grass, orchard grass, and bluegrass, were preferred by early horsemen, especially for race horses, because they were usually free from mold and dust and tended to slow down the rate of passage through the intestinal tract. These hays are low in digestible energy and protein, however, and must be adequately supplemented. Silages of all sorts should be avoided since horses and mules are extremely susceptible to botulism and digestive upsets.

      Oats are the preferred grain for horses because of their bulk. Corn (maize), barley, wheat, and milo can be used, however, whenever they are less expensive. Weanling foals require three pounds of feed per hundred pounds of live weight per day; as they approach maturity, this requirement drops to one pound of feed per hundred pounds of live weight daily. Horses normally reach mature weight at less than four years of age and 80 percent of their mature weight at less than two years of age.

      A large and ever-growing number of horses stabled in cities and suburbs where sufficient roughages cannot be grown provide a large market for complete horse rations, including roughage, which are tailored to the total needs of specific animals according to their particular function at a given time, such as growth, pregnancy, lactation, or maintenance.

      Horses will vary from the normal requirement in terms of weight, temperament, and previous nutrition. Foals will eat some pasture grass, forage, or hay when they are three days old and grain when they are three weeks old.

Management

      Highly bred light horses are notoriously poor reproducers. Many horse farms consider a 60 percent foaling rate for a large band of mares to be average. Most large horse farms employ resident veterinarians to check for abnormalities or disease before breeding and to check mares for pregnancy 40 to 45 days after breeding. Because many mares conceive only every other year, expert assistance at foaling time is an absolute necessity, especially if the foal is sired by an expensive stallion out of a valuable mare.

      The gestation period of horses is 340 days. The period between estrus ranges from 18 to 28 days with an average of 22 days. Mature stallions can safely mate with from 50 to 100 mares per season, although the practice with expensive Thoroughbreds is to book no more than 35 to 40 mares.

      The feet and legs of horses demand unusual attention. The old adage “no foot no horse” remains apt. Hooves should be trimmed regularly, beginning when the horse is a foal or only a few months old. Otherwise they may grow long and uneven, causing improper action, undue stress on joints, and broken or cracked hooves. Horses that are worked regularly, especially on hard and stony ground, as well as show horses and race horses in service, must be shod. Shod horses should have their hooves trimmed and their shoes refitted every four to six weeks. Tendency toward unsoundness is probably inherited but may be aggravated by poor hoof care and excessive stresses.

Diseases

      Horses are especially susceptible to tetanus or lockjaw but can be given two-year protection through the use of a commonly accepted toxoid. There are two common types of abortion in horses: virus abortion, specifically viral rhinopneumonitis, and the Salmonella (salmonellosis) type. The former, which produces an influenza with pinkeye, catarrh, general illness, and abortion, affects both mares and foals, but all surviving horses develop natural resistance soon after infection. Pregnant mares thought to be subjected to infection may be given some protection by available vaccines. The Salmonella type of abortion can be prevented completely by vaccination. Encephalomyelitis (equine encephalitis), or sleeping sickness, is prevented by vaccination. A specific vaccine is available for anthrax, which is prevalent in Asia. Hemolytic anemia of foals has become a problem. Foals so afflicted are born normal but soon become sluggish and progressively weaker; the membranes of their eyes, mouth, and lips become very pale and the heartbeat becomes rapid. This condition is caused by antibodies in the mare's milk that destroy the foal's red blood cells. These antibodies are caused by the difference in blood type between the foal and the mother. Newborn foals can be muzzled to avoid nursing while their blood is checked for reaction against the serum and milk of its mother. Where reactions are noted, the mare is hand-milked at hourly intervals for 12 to 24 hours, and the foal is fed milk from another suitable mare or a milk substitute. Horses are quite susceptible to various infections, but rotation of pastures, strict sanitation, and the use of suitable vermifuges are quite effective.

Asses (ass) and mules

      The words donkey and ass are generally used interchangeably to denote the same animal, though ass is more often employed when the animal is wild and donkey is used for a domesticated beast. Wild asses inhabit arid, semidesert plains where the vegetation is sparse and coarse; the domestic donkey does well on coarse food and is hardy under rough conditions, hence its usefulness to man as a beast of burden in places where horses cannot flourish, such as the mountains of Ethiopia and other parts of northeast Africa, the high plains of Tibet, and the arid regions of Mongolia.

      The donkey's occasional obstinacy in refusing work too heavy for it has become proverbial, but its equally pro verbial stupidity has probably become legendary through its reaction to brutal treatment and neglect. It is naturally patient and persevering, responding to gentle treatment with affection and attachment to its master. Mules (mule) are still used in some of the subtropical and tropical countries because of their ability to withstand most types of stress including heat, irregular feeding, and abuse. The mule is produced by crossing a jackass (Equus asinus) with a mare. The so-called Mammoth Jack was developed in America from European imports dating back to the late 18th century. It stands 15 to 16 hands (4.9 to 5.2 feet, or 1.5 to 1.6 metres) in height and weighs from 900 to 1,150 pounds (410–520 kilograms) at maturity. The reverse cross of a stallion on a jenny, or female ass, is called a hinny but theoretically has the same characteristics as a mule. At one time many different types of mules were recognized, such as draft mules, farm mules, sugar mules, cotton mules, and mining mules in declining order of size. The mining mule, a small, rugged individual weighing as little as 600 pounds (270 kilograms), was used in pit mines. These small mules are usually produced by pony dams.

      Mules are surer-footed than horses and also more intelligent. For this reason they are still used as saddle and pack mounts in precarious terrain. Unlike horses, they also refuse to damage themselves by overeating or by thrashing around when tangled up or in cramped quarters.

Wesley Patterson Garrigus

Buffalo and camels

Buffalo

 The name buffalo is applied to several different cud-chewing (ruminant) mammals of the ox family (Bovidae). The true, or Indian, buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), also known as water buffalo, or arna, exists both as a wild and domestic animal; it has been domesticated in Asia from very early times and was introduced into Italy about the year 600. A large ox-like animal of massive and rather clumsy build with large horns that are triangular in cross section, the Indian buffalo, standing five feet (1.5 metres) at the shoulder, has a dull black body, often very sparsely covered with hair. The horns, which may be over six feet (1.8 metres) long, spread outward and upward, approaching each other toward the tips; they meet more or less in one plane above the rounded forehead and elongated face. Used for draft purposes, and also for milk and butter, the domesticated Indian buffalo is found throughout the warmer parts of the Old World from China to Egypt, and in Hungary, France, and Italy. Its cousin, the Cape, or African, buffalo (Syncerus caffer; see photograph—>), a black animal of similarly massive build, has never been domesticated.

Camels (camel)

 The term camel usually applies to two species of the genus Camelus. The Arabian camel, Camelus dromedarius (see photograph—>), has one hump, the Bactrian camel, Camelus bactrianus, has two. The limbs are long and the feet have no traces of the second or fifth toes; the wide-spreading soft feet are well adapted for walking upon sand or snow. Horny pads on the chest and knees support the camel's weight when kneeling.

      The Bactrian camel occurs throughout the highlands of Central Asia from Turkistan to Mongolia and is an important beast of burden throughout that region. The Arabian camel, characteristic of India, the Near East, and North Africa, is likewise primarily important as a beast of burden, though it also provides wool, milk, hides, and meat. It is longer-legged, shorter coated, and more lightly built than the Bactrian camel, standing about seven feet (2.1 metres) tall at the shoulder. In the 19th century camels were introduced to the U.S. (United States)–Mexico border regions, the Pacific Northwest, and Australia. The North American experiments were short-lived, but the animals were used in the exploration and development of the Australian outback until about 1940.

      Camels can flourish on the coarsest of sparse vegetation, feeding on thorny plants, the leaves and twigs of shrubs, and dried grasses that other animals would refuse, though camels are not averse to more attractive food if it is available. When the feeding is good they accumulate stores of fat in their humps, upon which they are able to draw when conditions are adverse not only for sustenance but also for the manufacture of water by the oxidation of the fat; but they do not store water in the miscalled water cells. They are thus able to fast and go without drinking for several days; they have been known to go without water for 17 days and survive. Other adaptations that enable them to survive in deserts and other unfavourable environments include double rows of heavy protective eyelashes, haired ear openings, the ability to close their nostrils, and keen senses of sight and smell. The female produces one young at a birth after a gestation of 11 months and suckles it for a year; maturity is reached at the age of 10 to 12 years, and the life span is 30 to 40 years.

Wesley Patterson Garrigus Ed.

Additional Reading

The Animal Agriculture Series consists of several works, each devoted to a specific class of farm animal, such as M.E. Ensminger and R.C. Perry, Beef Cattle Science, 7th ed. (1997); other volumes treat dairy cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, and horses, and each is copiously illustrated, covering all aspects of production. Other texts addressing livestock include A.L. Neumann and Keith S. Lusby, Beef Cattle, 8th ed. (1986); Tilden Wayne Perry and Michael J. Cecara, Beef Cattle Feeding and Nutrition, 2nd ed. (1995); J.L. Krider, J.H. Conrad, and W.E. Carroll, Swine Production, 5th ed. (1982); Colin T. Whittemore, Pig Production: The Scientific and Practical Principles (1980); Elwyn R. Miller, Duane E. Ullrey, and Austin J. Lewis (eds.), Swine Nutrition (1991); a loose-leaf serial publication from Purdue University, Purdue Extension, The New Pork Industry Handbook (2007– ); Palmer Holden and M.E. Ensminger, Swine Science, 7th ed. (2006); Ron Parker, The Sheep Book: A Handbook for the Modern Shepherd, rev. and updated (2001); Allan Fraser and John T. Stamp, Sheep Husbandry and Diseases, 6th ed. rev. by J.M.M. Cunningham and John T. Stamp (1987); G.J. Tomes, D.E. Robertson, and R.J. Lightfoot, Sheep Breeding, 2nd ed. rev. by William Haresign (1979); and David Mackenzie, Goat Husbandry, 5th ed. rev. and edited by Ruth Goodwin (1993).Wesley Patterson Garrigus Palmer J. Holden

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