Khmer literature

Introduction

      body of literary works of Khmer peoples of Southeast Asia, mainly Cambodia.

Classical literature

      The classical literature of Cambodia comprises works composed in verse and recorded between the 16th and mid-19th century; much of it reflects the cultural influence of India. It can be classified according to three major genres: the epic, verse novels, and cbap, or “codes of conduct.”

      The best-known epic is the Reamker (“Honour of Rama”; Eng. trans. Reamker), the Cambodian version of the Ramayana (Rāmāyaṇa), one of the great epic poems of India. Surviving texts of the Reamker date from the 16th or 17th century, but bas-reliefs at Angkor Wat (Angkor) show that the Rama (Cambodian Ream) story had been known in Cambodia for centuries. The Cambodian version includes incidents and details not found in the Sanskrit original written by the poet Valmiki. As in other Southeast Asian countries, the Rama story in Cambodia is not confined to the realm of literature but extends to all Cambodian art forms, from sculpture to dance drama and from painting to tourist art. Another epic, Lpoek Angkor Vat (“The Story of Angkor Wat”), which dates from the beginning of the 17th century, celebrates the magnificent temple complex at Angkor and describes the bas-reliefs in the temple galleries that portray the Rama story.

      Verse novels emerged during the early 18th century. They are usually long, in some instances consisting of as many as 8,000 stanzas. Most are based on the jataka (Jātaka) tales (stories of the former lives of the Buddha, found widely in Southeast Asian literature), while others draw on local folktales and legends. One of the best-known is Tum Teav, a tragic love story believed to be based on real events that occurred during the 17th century. The story was passed down orally and then eventually recorded in the 19th century by the poet Santhor Mok. It remains a widely known story that is taught in schools and often retold in comic-strip format. It has also been filmed on two occasions and has inspired stage adaptations and popular songs.

      The cbap are didactic poems that were written by monks and used for moral instruction. The earliest surviving examples date from the 17th century, although the genre is believed to be considerably older. They were usually short, the shortest being only 29 stanzas, and passages from them are quoted as proverbs. They offer practical rules, based on Theravada Buddhist (Theravada) philosophy, for a wide variety of everyday activities, ranging from home economics and education to gender roles and government. In traditional Cambodian society, monks would use the cbap as texts for children to read, copy, and memorize.

French influence

      Literature flourished during the reign of King Ang Duong (Duong) (1841–60). The king, himself a renowned poet, brought together writers at his court who were involved not only in composing original works but also in revising old manuscripts and translating Buddhist texts from Pali into Khmer. After Cambodia became a French protectorate in 1863, the royal court continued to be the centre of literary production. French scholars began to take an interest in Cambodian culture and to collect and publish folktales, first in Paris and then in Cambodia. In 1930 they were involved in establishing the Buddhist Institute as a centre for the preservation and development of Cambodian national culture. The Buddhist Institute quickly became the main publisher in the country, bringing to readers works that had, until then, often been available only on palm-leaf manuscripts; its journal, Kambujasuriya, played a major role in publishing works of classical literature, religious works, folktales, and, later, novels; it also served as a forum for serious scholarship in Cambodia.

      French cultural influence, the educational expansion that created a reading public, and the growth of print media all facilitated the emergence of the prose novel in Cambodia in the late 1930s. To these factors must also be added a nationalistic motive, for several early novelists were anxious to challenge the dominance of Chinese and Vietnamese novels in the street stalls. These novels represented a total break from traditional Cambodian literature, taking prose as their medium, ordinary people as their protagonists, and everyday situations for their setting.

      Rim Kin's Sophat, written in 1938 and published in Vietnam in 1941 but not available in Cambodia until January 1942, is widely regarded as the “first” Cambodian novel. It is essentially a poor boy–rich girl romance, in which the hero, Sophat, faces a series of obstacles, misunderstandings, and improbable coincidences before he learns that he is not a poor orphan but actually of noble birth; the novel duly ends happily with his marriage to the girl he loves, the adopted daughter of his father. Dik Danle Sap (“The Waters of Tonle Sap”), by Kim Hak, was also hailed as “the first modern novel of Cambodia” when it appeared in Kambujasuriya in January 1939, but it never enjoyed the same popularity and acclaim as Sophat. Two other classic novels from the same period have, like Sophat, been made into films and taught in schools. They are Nhok Them's Kulap Pailin (“The Rose of Pailin”), first serialized in Kambujasuriya in 1943, and Phka srabon (“The Faded Flower”) by Nou Hach, first serialized in the weekly newspaper Kambuja in 1947. In the former a hardworking but lowly gem miner wins the hand of the mine owner's daughter after proving his courage and integrity, in part by saving her life; the latter novel takes the traditional arranged marriage as its theme and ends tragically when the heroine falls terminally ill through depression because her mother insists on choosing her spouse. By the end of the French Protectorate in 1953, about 48 novels had appeared. Between 1954 and 1969, more than 500 novels were published, with almost half of them appearing in the years 1965 and 1966. Variations on the themes of arranged marriage and thwarted love continued to be popular; the twist in Hak Chhay Hok's best-selling O phsaen maranah (1965; “The Fatal Smoke”) is that the rich heroine happily goes along with her parents' choice, jilting the poor student who had earlier saved her life; he then falls sick, fails his exams, and dies. By the late 1960s, the political situation within Cambodia deteriorated and a sharp decline in literary production followed; some writers dared not write, while economic pressures also contributed to a reduction in the number of novels published. One well-known novel that did appear during this period was Nou Hach's Mala tuon citt (“Garland of the Heart”), published in 1972 but written some 20 years earlier; the novel portrays Cambodian society during World War II and reflects the author's nationalism.

      In 1975 the Khmer Rouge captured Phnom Penh; in almost four years in power they did little to foster literature, beyond the promotion of revolutionary songs glorifying the peasants and the new society they were supposedly building. Cambodian refugees in exile, especially in France, did write novels, short stories, and poems, typically depicting the suffering endured prior to and during hazardous escapes from Cambodia and the pain of exile and separation. One such “survival novel,” Vipatti knun samarabhumi sneha (1990; “Disaster in the Battlefield of Love”), written in the United States by Duong Ratha, is unusual for its portrayal of life in the Khmer Rouge “liberation zones” before the fall of Phnom Penh in 1975. Within Cambodia itself, a revival began to take place after the overthrow of the Khmer Rouge regime; many of the novels that appeared in the 1980s reflected official attitudes to the recent past, with stories of Khmer Rouge atrocities, the sufferings of ordinary people, and the heroism of those, including the Vietnamese, who fought against the Khmer Rouge. Slik jhoe cak maek (1987; “The Leaves That Fall from the Trees”) by Kong Boun Chhouen, for example, depicts the cruelty of the Khmer Rouge through the experiences of Vanny, the seven-year-old heroine, who is saved from execution by liberating Vietnamese troops. Such overtly political fiction gave way in the early 1990s to more popular sentimental novels and crime fiction. Mao Somnang's prizewinning Ralak pok khsac (1996; “The Waves”), for example, in which the poor, orphaned heroine eventually overcomes a succession of obstacles, to find love and happiness, is typical of the kind of plot that had been popular almost half a century earlier; where it differs, is in a greater reliance on dialogue and the introduction of minor characters and subplots, reflecting the author's profession as a television scriptwriter.

David A. Smyth

Additional Reading

Judith M. Jacob, The Traditional Literature of Cambodia: A Preliminary Guide (1996); George Chigas (ed. and trans.), Cambodia's Lament: A Selection of Cambodian Poetry (1991).

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