Irish literature

Introduction

      the body of written works produced by the Irish. This article discusses Irish literature written in English from about 1690; its history is closely linked with that of English literature. Irish-language literature is treated separately under Celtic literature.

The hybridity of Irish literature in English

      After the literatures of Greek and Latin, literature in Irish is the oldest literature in Europe, dating from the 4th or 5th century CE. The presence of a “dual tradition” in Irish writing has been important in shaping and inflecting the material written in English, the language of Ireland's colonizers. Irish writing is, despite its unique national and linguistic characteristics, inevitably intertwined with English literature, and this relationship has led frequently to the absorption of Irish writers and texts into the canon of English literature. Many of the best-known Irish authors lived and worked for long periods in exile, often in England, and this too has contributed to a sense of instability in the development of a canon defined as uniquely Irish. Key Irish writers, from Edmund Burke and Jonathan Swift to Oliver Goldsmith, Maria Edgeworth, Oscar Wilde, and George Bernard Shaw, were traditionally considered English (or British) authors. But during the 20th century—particularly after the partition and partial independence of Ireland in 1920–22—scholars reclaimed these writers and their works for Ireland. This shift can be seen in the changing use of the term Anglo-Irish literature, which at one time referred to the whole body of Irish writing in English but is now used to describe literature produced by, and usually about, members of the Anglo-Irish Protestant Ascendancy of the 18th century.

      Ireland's history of conquest and colonization, of famine and mass emigration, and of resistance, rebellion, and civil war etched its literature with a series of ruptures and revivals. Since the 17th century, Irish society has also simultaneously been a colonial one and an independent, national one. That hybridity has been the source of endless cultural tension in Irish writing, which has repeatedly coalesced around four issues: land, religion, nationality, and language.

      The defeat of Hugh O'Neill, 2nd earl of Tyrone (Tyrone, Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of), at the Battle of Kinsale in 1601 marked the start of the gradual, century-long collapse of Gaelic civilization as the dominant mode of Irish existence. It also marked the acceleration of a long process of Protestant British colonization that would dramatically transform the land, the language, and the religion of Ireland. Out of the profound cultural trauma engendered by this process, “Anglo-Irish” writing emerged.

The 18th century

 As the shifting meaning of the term Anglo-Irish literature during the 20th century demonstrates, there is disagreement about how to characterize 18th-century Irish writing in English. There is little disagreement, however, about the dichotomous nature of Irish society at that time. The country was dominated by the Protestant and English-speaking minority, which had triumphed over Roman Catholic Ireland at the Battles of the Boyne (1690) and Aughrim (1691) after the Glorious Revolution; the Protestant population's control over the country was later referred to as the Protestant Ascendancy. The legacy of the political settlement in Ireland that followed the defeat at Aughrim thus had a strongly sectarian and colonial cast that, when coupled with the grim Irish realities of conflict and poverty, would later trouble the writings of Edmund Burke (Burke, Edmund). Whig (Whig and Tory) writers such as Burke and Jonathan Swift (Swift, Jonathan), who considered the Glorious Revolution a triumph of liberty, also stumbled over the long-standing unequal relationship between the kingdoms of Ireland and Great Britain. Protestant patriots rejected the notion that Ireland was either a dependant kingdom or a colony, but the statute book, the economic and political restrictions placed on Ireland by the British government at London, and the planting of English placemen in Irish jobs instructed them otherwise. In The Drapier's Letters (1724–25), Swift asked:Were not the people of Ireland born as free as those of England? How have they forfeited their Freedom? Is not their Parliament as fair a Representative of the People, as that of England? And hath not their Privy Council as great, or a greater Share in the Administration of publick Affairs? Are they not Subjects of the same King? Does not the same Sun shine over them? And have they not the same God for their Protector? Am I a Free-man in England, and do I become a Slave in six Hours, by crossing the Channel?

      By “the people of Ireland,” of course, he meant English Protestants living in Ireland, and therein lies the paradox at the root of the Anglo-Irish condition. Dual allegiance was first and foremost a political problem, but that problem also worked itself out in shifting and ambiguous senses of cultural (or national) identities and in writing.

The Irishness of Anglo-Irish literature

 Swift demonstrated no interest in the “barbarous” Irish language and, unlike Burke, no sympathy for poor Irish Roman Catholics. Swift's views were an expression of his own bifurcated vision of Irish writing. According to such a view, 18th-century Ireland produced two distinct literatures that never touched or intersected: one in English, the language of print, and another in Irish, mainly in manuscript. Thus conceptualized, the first—what is best called Anglo-Irish literature—can scarcely be separated from the wider English tradition. If, as English critic Samuel Johnson remarked, the noblest prospect that a Scotsman ever sees is the high road to England, for many an ambitious Anglo-Irish writer—including the Shakespeare scholar and editor Edmund Malone (Malone, Edmund), one of Johnson's friends in London—that prospect was the boat to Holyhead, the Welsh port that served as the chief entry point for travelers to the British mainland from Ireland. Burke, George Farquhar (Farquhar, George), Oliver Goldsmith (Goldsmith, Oliver), Richard Brinsley Sheridan (Sheridan, Richard Brinsley), and many others left Ireland and made their careers in England. After 1714 Swift wanted to leave Ireland but could not, given the political changes in England that had led to his Irish exile. He likened his condition in Dublin to that of a “poisoned rat in a hole.” London exerted an almost irresistible force as a literary and theatrical market. Anglo-Irish drama and novels were written mostly with an English audience in view; in terms of content, there is often nothing specifically Irish about, for example, the plays and novels of Henry Brooke (Brooke, Henry) or the essays and poetry of Goldsmith.

      Yet Ireland was not absent from Anglo-Irish writing. Indeed, there is a good deal of Irish content in the drama and poetry. “Irish” plays were among the most popular and most often performed of the 18th century. They include Ireland Preserv'd; or, The Siege of Londonderry (1705) by John Mitchelburne (Michelborne); its companion piece, Robert Ashton's The Battle of Aughrim (1728), of which as many as 25 editions were published between 1770 and 1840; and the better-known True-Born Irishman (1763) by Charles Macklin (Macklin, Charles). The first two—vividly recorded by William Carleton (Carleton, William) as part of Ulster popular culture well into the 19th century—underlined the narrowly Protestant character of the post-Aughrim political settlement in Ireland, although The Battle of Aughrim appealed to Catholics as well for its portrayal of the Jacobite hero Patrick Sarsfield (Sarsfield, Patrick). More mundanely, the hero of Macklin's play is a resident landlord, a personification of the sort of practical patriotism promoted by the Royal Dublin Society (founded 1731) and articulated by a substantial pamphlet literature stretching from Swift's A Proposal for the Universal Use of Irish Manufactures (1720) to Samuel Madden's Reflections and Resolutions Proper for the Gentlemen of Ireland (1738) and including Viscount Molesworth's Some Considerations for the Promoting of Agriculture and Employing the Poor (1723), Thomas Prior's best-selling A List of the Absentees of Ireland (1729), Arthur Dobbs's An Essay on the Trade and Improvement of Ireland (1729–31), and George Berkeley (Berkeley, George)'s The Querist (1735–37).

      A second Irish dimension in Anglo-Irish literature of the period may be detected in the cross-fertilizations of language. At their most basic level, these cross-fertilizations produced Hiberno-English—the “barbarous denominations” of the Irish brogue, as Swift had it, from which an Englishman expected nothing but “bulls, blunders, and follies.” Hiberno-English was usually deployed as a highly self-conscious comic device, and stage Irishmen, such as Sir Callaghan O'Brallaghan in Macklin's Love à la Mode (1759) and Sir Lucius O'Trigger in Sheridan's The Rivals (1775), delighted 18th-century audiences, including Irish ones. Yet the Irish priest Foigard—another comic character, in Farquhar's The Beaux' Stratagem (1707)—represents a reminder of the darker side of linguistic politics when he is warned that “your tongue will condemn you before any bench in the kingdom.”

      At a more subtle level, close scrutiny of Irish verse in English reveals that the languages did not so much coexist across a yawning divide as cohabit in an intimate, mutually enriching relationship. The impact of linguistic proximity is discernible not only in the conscription into poetry of “nonstandard” local vocabulary but in the infiltration of traditional Irish metrics as well. A third “language” in which verse was composed further complicates the binary opposition of English and Irish: the Ulster-Scots dialect. A regional variant of the Lowlands Scottish (Lallans) used by Scottish poet Robert Burns (Burns, Robert), Ulster-Scots invigorates the vernacular verse of the “weaver poets,” such as Samuel Thomson and James Orr, who were writing in the late 18th century.

      The influences of and borrowings from the Irish language and, more broadly, from Gaelic culture were largely unselfconscious. The last three decades of the 18th century, however, did witness a self-aware Gaelic revival. This revival had its origins, at least in part, in Scotland and Wales. The Scottish poet James Macpherson (Macpherson, James)'s “translations” from the Gaelic tradition, especially his Fingal (1762) and Temora (1763), were in large part—as Samuel Johnson and as the Irish scholar, antiquarian, and activist Charles O'Conor charged—invented, but that did not retard their popularity. These Ossianic poems in fact may be seen as the foundational texts for a new movement to reclaim an ancient Celtic civilization. In Ireland this movement was represented by the antiquarian researches of O'Conor (a Catholic), Charles Vallancey (an English-born Protestant), and others, by Joseph Cooper Walker's Historical Memoirs of the Irish Bards (1786), and by the influential Reliques of Irish Poetry (1789) of Charlotte Brooke, the daughter of Henry Brooke. Her collections and translations from oral tradition mark both an emerging vogue for the “primitive” and a developing Irish Protestant engagement with “native” Irish heritage, which Swift could not have imagined, let alone foreseen. The year 1789 also saw the publication of Denis Woulfe's translation into English of Brian Merriman's Cúirt an mheán oíche (The Midnight Court), the outstanding long poem of the 18th century in the Irish language.

      A third way in which the Irishness of Anglo-Irish literature registers itself is at once the most difficult to pin down and the most important: style. Swift shared a common language with his English friends Alexander Pope (Pope, Alexander) and Viscount Bolingbroke (Bolingbroke, Henry Saint John, 1st Viscount, Baron Saint John Of Lydiard Tregoze), but, in the words of 20th-century Irish nationalist writer Daniel Corkery, “the Ascendancy mind is not the same thing as the English mind.” Nor was the Ascendancy experience the same thing as the English experience. English writers inhabited a world that—despite the bitter partisanship of the era, the succession controversy after Queen Anne's death in 1714, and the persistent Jacobite threat—showed a degree of political security and continuity that was largely unfamiliar to Anglo-Irish writers. The Anglo-Irish were keenly aware of the precariousness of their position as a ruling elite and the anomalies and inequities of their relationship with the “mother country.” This last circumstance in particular gave rise to a condition that can be described as cultural dislocation. Just as the split personality embodied by Robert Louis Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is sometimes read as symbolic of the Scottish predicament, it is in the predicament of the Anglo-Irish, caught uneasily between two civilizations and feeling out of place in both, that its characteristic voice—ironic, detached, nostalgic, often Gothic—is to be heard.

From Swift to Burke

 The Anglo-Irish style rises to its best, clearest, and most powerful expression in the works of Swift, Goldsmith (Goldsmith, Oliver), Sheridan, and Burke (Burke, Edmund). As the 20th-century Irish poet, novelist, and critic Seamus Deane observed, “Anglo-Irish writing does not begin with Swift, but Anglo-Irish literature does.” And where Swift begins, he adds, with Burke “the formation of the Anglo-Irish cultural and literary identity reaches completion.” All of these writers moved in the sphere of English letters and—with the exception of Goldsmith—politics, and to that extent they were insiders. All were born in Ireland, and in that respect they were outsiders. (It must not be forgotten that the English journalist John Wilkes (Wilkes, John) once said of Burke, today considered a giant of English political thought, that his oratory “stank of whiskey and potatoes,” a curt dismissal that lays bare Burke's status as an outsider.) Indeed, Anglo-Irish writers were doubly outsiders, given their minority status within Ireland's largely Catholic population. Their unique position within both English and Irish society nurtured a doubleness in their language, which was manifested in the finely honed sense of irony evident in Swift's savage satires and in the glittering verbal dexterity of Sheridan's The School for Scandal (1777).

      Irony is also a distancing technique, and critical distance, or detachment, shapes works as various as Francis Hutcheson (Hutcheson, Francis)'s An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (1725); Swift's satirical A Modest Proposal (1729), which in a matter-of-fact tone recommends the eating of Irish infants as a remedy for famine; and Goldsmith's The Citizen of the World; or, Letters from a Chinese Philosopher (1762). Goldsmith can see the English, the subject of his Letters, in ways that the English cannot; he is able to use his sense of cultural dislocation to achieve detachment from his subject. Similarly, Goldsmith's status as an exile heightens his expressions of nostalgia in his long poem The Deserted Village (1770). The poem elegiacally describes the depopulation—caused by emigration—suffered by the village of Auburn, and it condemns the atmosphere that has replaced the pastoral good health of the past: the village has become a place “where wealth accumulates, and men decay.”

 A sense of nostalgia—for a traditional world lost or for an ideal world gone wrong—also gives a sometimes tragic note to Swift's indignation and suffuses Burke's complex literary output. A politician for most of his career, Burke entered public life after having written two philosophical books, A Vindication of Natural Society (1756) and A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757). These proto-Romantic treatises privilege the natural and the authentic over the artificial, and they prefigure Burke's defense of the integrity of native and traditional culture in India during the impeachment proceedings he initiated in 1786 against Warren Hastings, governor-general of India. Ireland too had an ancient civilization, and it is Burke's acute sensitivity to this fact—perhaps nurtured by his mother and by his wife, both Roman Catholics—that explains this Irish Protestant's unrelenting hostility to a parvenu Protestant Ascendancy.

      Burke's writings on Ireland are concerned mainly with alleviating the lot of the Catholics. He denounced what he saw as injustice, corruption, and misrule, but he diagnosed these as essentially local phenomena. He despised the Ascendancy but venerated the British connection. These were positions that, perhaps, could not be reconciled. Certainly many of Burke's countrymen came to think so in the revolutionary 1790s, when the Society of United Irishmen (United Irishmen, Society of), an Irish political organization, linked the demand for political justice with the aspiration to an independent Irish republic.

      Political pamphleteering and political satire kept the Irish presses busy in the last decades of the 18th century. Of these works, which were often ephemeral and of mixed literary quality, two stand out. Wolfe Tone (Tone, Wolfe)'s An Argument on Behalf of the Catholics of Ireland (1791) not only persuaded its target audience, Belfast Presbyterians, to support the repeal of the anti-Catholic Penal Laws—something for which Burke had long argued—but did so with verve and wit. James Porter's Billy Bluff and Squire Firebrand (1796) is a funny, blistering assault on the Ascendancy that first appeared as a series of letters in The Northern Star, the newspaper of the United Irishmen. It may not attain Swiftian flight, but it did bite deeply enough to send the author to the scaffold. Tone's own journals and memoir, published posthumously in 1826, also retain the immediacy of their original composition; they have a lightness of touch and an air of self-deprecation that has earned them a well-deserved place not merely in Irish literary history but among prominent memoirs of the 18th century.

The 19th century

      In Belfast in 1792 there was an unprecedented gathering of Irish harpers, the aim of which, as it was described in a circular of the time, was to revive “the Ancient Music and Poetry of Ireland.” Musician and folk-song collector Edward Bunting transcribed the music played at the festival and published A General Collection of Ancient Irish Music in 1796, which was followed, in 1809 and 1840, by two expanded editions. Where Charlotte Brooke had made available to English-reading audiences the cadences of Irish poetry, Bunting's collections of traditional Irish airs provided a musical accompaniment.

  The writer who, more than any other, took up the challenge of writing new “national” lyrics to Bunting's music was Thomas Moore (Moore, Thomas), who published 10 separate numbers of his Irish Melodies between 1807 and 1834. These hugely popular drawing-room songs (including "Let Erin Remember the Days of Old," "Dear Harp of My Country," and "Oft in the Stilly Night" ) reinvented for audiences across Ireland and Great Britain a form of romantic Celticism that, though nationalist in flavour, was nonetheless politically superficial. Moore's lyrics are sentimental and do not stand well when separated from the music to which they were written, but the cultural impact of the Irish Melodies was enormous. Later commentators, however, disdained them. James Hardiman—the editor of Irish Minstrelsy (1831), a collection of bardic poetry—called them “vulgar ballads,” and English essayist William Hazlitt (Hazlitt, William) accused Moore of having converted “the wild harp of Erin into a musical snuff-box.” Moore was made a best-selling poet by Lalla Rookh (1817), a long allegorical poem in which an Eastern princess traveling accompanied by a poet—her husband-to-be in disguise—hears tales of insurrection and passion. His historical novel The Memoirs of Captain Rock, the Celebrated Irish Chieftain (1824) also enjoyed wide popular appeal.

Ferguson, Owenson, and Edgeworth

      Samuel Ferguson was an Ulster Protestant, unionist, and cultural nationalist whose poetry and prose, as well as antiquarian work, provided foundational texts for the Gaelic revival of the 1830s and also, crucially, for a subsequent revival, the Irish literary renaissance, that began in the last decades of the 19th century. In 1833 he wrote "A Dialogue Between the Head and Heart of an Irish Protestant." Having published widely in Blackwood's and The Dublin University Magazine throughout the 1830s and the famine years of the 1840s (during which he condemned British policies in Ireland), Ferguson produced in 1858 the prose burlesque Father Tom and the Pope; or, A Night in the Vatican. In 1865 he published Lays of the Western Gael, a collection of poems on Irish themes. His roiling, gutsy, and poetic version of the Ulster epic Congal appeared in 1872. Significantly, much of his work was republished or collected for the first time after his death, and his posthumous reputation coincided forcefully with the Irish literary renaissance. One of the primary figures of the renaissance, the poet William Butler Yeats, described him in 1886 as

one who, among the somewhat sybaritic singers of his day, was like some aged sea-king sitting among inland wheat and poppies—the savour of the sea about him, and its strength.

      One of Moore's best-known Irish literary contemporaries was his friend the novelist Sydney Owenson, Lady Morgan. She too wrote songs, and she published Twelve Original Hibernian Melodies in 1805. But it was her romantic novel The Wild Irish Girl (1806) that made her a household name. This partly epistolary novel, set in Ireland, concerns the romance between Horatio, a young Englishman, and Glorvina, whose father's Irish estate has been destroyed by Horatio's father. Owenson was also one of the earliest exponents of the Romantic Irish national tale. Her novels present exuberant and independent heroines in rambling—but always colourful—plots, copiously footnoted with antiquarian and historical insights. She expounded a vigorous Irish nationalism and was a vocal supporter of Catholic Emancipation in Ireland, promised at the time of union in 1800 but not granted until 1829. Owenson's politics and her perceived religious apostasy opened her to numerous attacks in the English press, and she was loathed by the English Tory establishment and especially by the politician and critic John Wilson Croker (Croker, John Wilson). Her travel narratives France (1817) and Italy (1821) made her a literary phenomenon on the Continent. Other novels include The Missionary (1811), Florence Macarthy: An Irish Tale (1818), Absenteeism (1825), and The O'Briens and the O'Flahertys (1827).

      A very different kind of novelist was the reform-minded Maria Edgeworth (Edgeworth, Maria). Much of Edgeworth's early work was educational in focus, completed under the supervision and influence of her father, Richard Lovell Edgeworth (Edgeworth, Richard Lovell). Her Letters for Literary Ladies (1795), The Parent's Assistant (1796), and Practical Education (1798) reflected the liberal educational theories of her father. These theories, ultimately derived from the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, argued that children's memories should be cultivated by “well-arranged associations” rather than by rote. Edgeworth's short novel Castle Rackrent: An Hibernian Tale (1800), published anonymously the same year that the Act of Union was approved, was an immediate popular success. Narrated by the Roman Catholic family retainer Thady Quirk, who somewhat resembles contemporary stage Irishmen, Castle Rackrent is an ironic treatment of the life of an Anglo-Irish estate in times of political turbulence. The novel was innovative in its use of dialect and locale and in featuring Irish Catholics as central to the narrative. Considered the first regional novel in the British Isles, it was enormously influential, particularly on the work of Sir Walter Scott (Scott, Sir Walter, 1st Baronet), the Scottish pioneer of the national historical novel. To Scott, Edgeworth was “the great Maria,” and he began Waverley (1814) under the influence of Castle Rackrent. Her other novels and books of stories include Belinda (1801), Leonora (1806), Tales of Fashionable Life (first series 1809; second series, including The Absentee, 1812), Harrington and Ormond (published together in 1817), and Orlandino (1848), her last novel.

Roman Catholic writers

      Castle Rackrent anticipated the rise of an Irish Catholic bourgeoisie, and the first half of the 19th century witnessed the emergence of an increasingly confident Catholic voice among Irish writers. Brothers John and Michael Banim (Banim, John and Michael), who sometimes published jointly under the pseudonym “the O'Hara Brothers,” produced a series of novels and tales often historical and always politically pessimistic, as are John's The Boyne Water (1826), set in Ulster during the Jacobite war of 1688–91, and Michael's vivid The Croppy (1828), set during the Irish Rebellion of 1798. But the Banims were also intent on telling contemporary stories of the Catholic Irish peasantry that were infused with a strong element of superstition and sentimentality. These tales, including Michael's Crohoore of the Bill-Hook (1825) and John's The Fetches (1825) and The Nowlans (1826), were published together as Tales by the O'Hara Family (two series, 1825 and 1826). John Banim's important last novel, published on the eve of Catholic Emancipation, was The Anglo-Irish of the Nineteenth Century (1828).

      Another important Catholic novelist of the period was John Banim's associate Gerald Griffin, who was born just after the union and died a few years before the Irish Potato Famine of the 1840s. His novel The Collegians (1829) is one of the best-loved Irish national tales of the early 19th century. Based on a true story, it involves a dashing young Anglo-Irish landowner, Hardress Cregan, who elopes with a beautiful young Catholic peasant girl, Eily O'Connor. With the help of his crippled servant, he later murders her in order to marry a woman of his own class. The novel gained renewed fame when the Irish-born American playwright Dion Boucicault (Boucicault, Dion) wrote a hugely popular dramatization of it, The Colleen Bawn (1860).

      The title of Boucicault's play drew on that of a novel, Willy Reilly and His Dear Colleen Bawn (1855), in which the central plot of The Collegians is inverted: a young Catholic gentleman falls in love and elopes with an Anglo-Irish woman. Its author, William Carleton (Carleton, William), though born among the Irish-speaking Catholic peasantry of County Tyrone, first attracted notice while writing for the strongly anti-Catholic magazine The Christian Examiner; he eventually converted to Protestantism and argued against Catholic Emancipation. His five volumes of Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry (1830–33) are vibrant descriptions of the lives and traditions of the rural Irish, and more than 50 editions were published before Carleton's death in 1869. At the time he wrote the tales, Carleton had found his subjects “a class unknown in Irish literature, unknown by their own landlords, and unknown by those in whose hands much of their destiny was placed.” As he wrote, he therefore “became the historian of their habits and manners, their feelings, their prejudices, their superstitions and their crimes.” Carleton's haunting novel The Black Prophet (1847) was based on the Irish famines of 1817 and 1822; its publication in the midst of the Great Potato Famine gave it obvious contemporary relevance. Though Carleton's political positions and sympathies were inconsistent, his work retains an honesty of delineation. Yeats called him

a great Irish historian. The history of a nation is not in parliaments and battle-fields, but in what the people say to each other on fair-days and on high days, and in how they farm, and quarrel, and go on pilgrimage. These things has Carleton recorded.

Irish nationalism and the Great Potato Famine

 In step with developments elsewhere in Europe, Ireland in the mid-19th century saw renewed expressions of nationalism. These, however, coincided with the greatest catastrophe experienced by the Irish people: the Great Potato Famine, or An Gorta Mór (“The Great Hunger”), of 1845–49.

      The nationalist Young Ireland movement coalesced around a newspaper, The Nation, which began publication in 1842 and provided the growing movement for the repeal of the Act of Union with a vital cultural and political outlet. Among its founders were the young Roman Catholic journalist Charles Gavan Duffy (Duffy, Sir Charles Gavan) and Thomas Osborne Davis (Davis, Thomas Osborne), a Protestant and a graduate of Trinity College, Dublin. The Nation published nationalist ballads (including Davis's "A Nation Once Again," which remained a nationalist staple through the turn of the 21st century), debated the political issues of the day, and revived popular interest in Irish history and antiquarianism and in the Irish language. As Davis wrote: “A nation without a language of its own [is] only half a nation.… To lose your native tongue, and learn that of an alien, is the worst badge of conquest.” The best of the poems published in the newspaper were collected in The Spirit of the Nation (1843).

      The most accomplished poet to publish in The Nation was James Clarence Mangan (Mangan, James Clarence). Much of Mangan's work consisted of translations or of versions of poems that had appeared in other languages—German, Irish, French, Coptic—but he engaged with contemporary issues, in particular with the famine, in a melodramatic, intense, and often morbid style. He lived and died in great poverty. Among his more-noteworthy poems are a version of the Irish song "Róisín dubh" — "Dark Rosaleen" —and "Siberia," an allegorical famine poem. James Joyce, the greatest Irish novelist of the 20th century, considered Mangan “the most significant poet of the modern Celtic world.”

      The Young Ireland movement was both energized and divided by the famine of the 1840s. Two writers in particular engaged in the period's debate about Ireland's future and Britain's policies during the famine: John Mitchel and James Fintan Lalor. Mitchel became an editor of The Nation in 1845, but over the next three years he grew increasingly disillusioned with the idea of legal and constitutional agitation for change in Ireland. In 1848 he split from The Nation and founded the incendiary newspaper The United Irishman. He was accused of sedition and arrested and tried under the Treason Felony Act of 1848. A “packed” jury convicted him, and he was sentenced (as were other Young Irelanders) to time in Britain's penal colonies. Mitchel's Jail Journal (1854) remains one of the great prose classics of Irish writing, and his trenchant critiques of the British Empire and of British policy in Ireland during the famine became foundational texts for the later Irish republican movement. Patrick Pearse (Pearse, Patrick Henry), one of the leaders of the Easter Rising in 1916, praised the Jail Journal as “the last Gospel of the New Testament of Irish nationality, as Wolfe Tone's Autobiography is the first.” Lalor was less of a public figure than Mitchel, though Lalor's ideas strongly influenced the younger man. In an important series of articles published in The Nation, Lalor sought to toughen the rhetoric of Irish nationalism, particularly as it intersected with the campaign for land reform. He called for “the soil of Ireland for the people of Ireland,” and his stirring rhetoric advocated boycotts, rent strikes, and armed rebellion to achieve it.

 If the abortive Young Ireland rebellion of 1848 was a military failure, its energy and the ways in which its intellectuals had altered the nature of the debate over Ireland's future did not disappear. In 1858 the secret Irish Republican Brotherhood was founded, with an American counterpart, the Fenian Brotherhood, appearing simultaneously. The Fenian leader and novelist Charles Kickham, a Roman Catholic who had taken part in the Young Ireland rising of 1848, was a kind of Irish republican counterpart to English novelist Charles Dickens (Dickens, Charles). Immensely popular in both Ireland and the United States, Kickham's novels Sally Kavanagh; or, The Untenanted Graves (1869) and Knocknagow; or, The Homes of Tipperary (1879) were initially serialized in newspapers. Sentimental and didactic, Kickham's fiction was the literary embodiment of the Fenianism that, through the latter half of the 19th century, played a vital role in building Irish nationalism as a political force.

The decline of the Protestant Ascendancy

      While Roman Catholic and nationalist voices proliferated, the 19th century saw a concomitant decline in the position of the Anglo-Irish Protestant Ascendancy, and this produced a literature characterized by class anxiety and loss. Among this literature's most enduring genres are the so-called Big House novel—not least in its later humorous vein, as in the works of Somerville and Ross (Edith Somerville and Martin Ross, the latter a pseudonym of Violet Florence Martin)—and the much darker Gothic novel. The latter achieved its highest form in the hands of three Anglo-Irish writers: Sheridan Le Fanu (Le Fanu, Sheridan), Charles Robert Maturin (Maturin, Charles Robert), and Bram Stoker (Stoker, Bram). Le Fanu, one of the most popular Victorian writers in both Ireland and England, is often called the father of the modern ghost story. He was a journalist—at various times in his career he owned or part-owned half a dozen newspapers and magazines—whose politics were implacably unionist, and his fiction invariably occupies a haunted, unstable, ruinous, and guilt-ridden landscape. His 14 novels and numerous stories include, most importantly, Uncle Silas (1864) and "Carmilla" (1872), the latter a lesbian-inflected vampire story; both were influential precursors to Stoker's Dracula. Elizabeth Bowen (Bowen, Elizabeth), herself an author of Big House novels, saw a connection between her novels and Le Fanu's:

The hermetic solitude and the autocracy of the great country house, the demonic power of the family myth, fatalism, feudalism and the “ascendancy” outlook are accepted facts of life for the race of hybrids from which Le Fanu sprang.

      Maturin (Maturin, Charles Robert), a Church of Ireland clergyman whose relatively short career was tinged with clear anti-Catholic prejudice, published The Wild Irish Boy (1808) in response to Owenson's The Wild Irish Girl. Unlike Owenson's feisty heroines, however, the heroes of Maturin's stories are invariably ruined by some kind of demonic crime. In the preface to The Milesian Chief (1812), Maturin acknowledged that

If I possess any talent, it is of darkening the gloomy, and deepening the sad; of painting life in extremes, and representing those struggles of passions when the soul trembles on the verge of the unlawful and the unhallowed.

      For Maturin, Ireland was the perfect setting for the exploration of such a struggle, partly perhaps because of its Catholicism but partly, according to Maturin himself, because it is “the only country on earth…where…the extremes of refinement and barbarism are united.” His finest literary achievement was Melmoth the Wanderer (1820), a Gothic, Faustian tale of destruction told in a series of nested frame stories (frame story). Mangan and Scott were great admirers of Maturin, as were the French writers Charles Baudelaire and Honoré de Balzac.

      Stoker (Stoker, Bram) was the most famous, if not necessarily the greatest or the most prolific, of the Irish Gothic novelists. His Dracula (1897) gave Western culture one of its most enduring and fantastic villains, the vampire Count Dracula. A young lawyer, Jonathan Harker—whose journal makes up the first third of the novel—travels into the wilds of eastern Europe in search of Dracula, a strange, aristocratic Anglophile. Shortly after his arrival, Harker is imprisoned by Dracula, who travels to London and wreaks terror on the city's population. Dracula taps into the anxieties of a post- Jack the Ripper fin-de-siècle (fin de siècle) England—anxieties centring on sex, class, and the ownership of territory (or empire) in particular.

Shaw and Wilde

 Two exiled Irish writers influenced British culture in important ways as the 19th century turned. George Bernard Shaw (Shaw, George Bernard) and Oscar Wilde (Wilde, Oscar) were both dramatists and polemicists. Shaw was a Dublin-born middle-class Protestant who by the 1920s had worked his way from an apprentice clerkship to a position as one of Europe's most influential men of letters. Shavian became the adjective used to describe the witty epithets that punctuate Shaw's writing and serve as the glue that holds together works that could often be didactic and dramatically stilted. Over the course of a long career, Shaw produced some 50 plays, five novels, and innumerable political and cultural essays. He played the part of the engaged public intellectual with insistence and courage, making himself unpopular in England with his criticism of World War I and his campaigns against the executions of the leaders of the Easter Rising. Shaw, a member of the socialist Fabian Society, condemned what he called “middle-class morality” and its strictures. Most of his plays were, in fact, modern morality plays, influenced, at least early in his career, by the realism and feminism of Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen. Many of his early plays had to wait years before appearing in London; frequently his work would instead open in Germany or the United States. Among these plays were the then-scandalous Mrs. Warren's Profession (written 1893, performed 1902), which tackled the moral economy of prostitution; Arms and the Man (performed 1894), which subverted the conventions of romantic drama to undermine the ideals of war; and his first financial success, The Devil's Disciple (performed 1897), in which Shaw, this time inverting the conventions of contemporary melodrama, took apart two more “ideals”—those of family and marriage.

 Shaw's middle-period plays—including Caesar and Cleopatra (performed 1901); John Bull's Other Island (performed 1904), the only play that dealt specifically with the Irish situation; Man and Superman (performed 1905); and Major Barbara (performed 1905)—established him as the leading playwright in London, particularly after Wilde's disgrace in 1895. By the time of Pygmalion (performed 1913), notorious for its onstage use of the epithet bloody, Shaw's work was drawing huge audiences to long runs.

 Two years after the success of what is widely regarded as his best play, St. Joan (performed 1923), Shaw was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, an award that acknowledged his international reputation. He accepted the prize but declined the money. Shaw occupies an awkward place in the Irish literary canon, in part because of his long absence from his country of birth and in part because of his tangential relationship to the nationalist Irish literary renaissance.

      Often a seeming disciple, whether of the critics Walter Pater and John Ruskin or of the painter James McNeill Whistler, Wilde (Wilde, Oscar) nonetheless cut a brilliant and individual figure. Wilde was born in Dublin to parents with nationalist sympathies; his mother was best known in the 1840s for writing strident poetry and articles for The Nation. He attended Trinity College in Dublin but thereafter moved to England. "The Critic as Artist" (1890), a dialogue on aesthetics, emphasizes Wilde's elevation of the individual. “Criticism is itself an art,” he wrote; the response of the critic to a work of art should be to create another. Wilde wrote fairy tales and short stories, and his only novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890; rev. ed. 1891), is a Gothic tale of duplicity, narcissism, and destruction. It was the most notorious novel of its time. Wilde is reputed to have once said that “in every first novel the hero is the author as Christ or Faust,” and Dorian Gray's tale is a Faustian one. While a hidden portrait of him reveals the damage to his soul wreaked by years of corruption, Dorian himself retains his youthful beauty. At the end of the novel, he stabs the portrait and is later found as a hideous human wreck with a knife in his heart, while the portrait has reverted to its original beautiful form. The novel has strong homoerotic and Decadent undertones; one contemporary critic described it as having been written for “none but outlawed noblemen and perverted telegraph boys.”

 Although his play Salomé (published 1893) was banned during rehearsals, Wilde's greatest literary success came in the theatre with a series of light, epigrammatic comedies of manners: Lady Windermere's Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895), and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895). After the latter opened, Wilde was accused by the marquess of Queensberry, the father of Wilde's lover Lord Alfred Douglas, of sodomy; Wilde responded by taking out a warrant against Queensberry for criminal libel. Wilde lost the case in a scandalous and spectacular trial and was himself arrested, tried, and found guilty of homosexual offenses. During his two years' hard labour, Wilde wrote a long letter to Douglas, a moving meditation on love and suffering; first published posthumously in 1905 as De Profundis, it did not appear in its complete form until 1949. His final work was a poem, The Ballad of Reading Gaol (1898), inspired by the execution of a fellow prisoner. Decadent, dandy, aesthete, wit, playwright, poet, novelist, critic, and public lecturer, Wilde remains one of the most controversial Irish writers, not least because, like Shaw, his relationship to his country of birth was an uneasy one.

The 20th century

      As the 20th century drew near in Ireland, a new nationalist cultural revival stirred. It would come to be known as the Irish literary renaissance and would change modern Irish history, but first it had to make sense of the Irish past. In 1878 Standish James O'Grady (O'Grady, Standish James), considered by his contemporaries the “father” of this revival, published History of Ireland: The Heroic Period. More a fantasia than a history, it nonetheless introduced a new generation of nationalists to the myths and legends of early Irish history. This Gaelic past would ballast the rising nationalist movement, providing it with subject matter and inspiration. In 1893 Douglas Hyde (Hyde, Douglas) founded the Gaelic League to preserve the Irish language and to revive it where it had ceased to be spoken. Hyde became a central figure in the revival, and his translations of poetry from the Irish inflected new poetry being written in English at the turn of the 20th century. In 1892 he gave the lecture "The Necessity for De-Anglicising Ireland," a call to embrace things authentically Irish. Hyde's call gave rise to multiple organizations that pushed a nationalist agenda in the 1890s and early 1900s and, by 1905, had culminated in the foundation of the Sinn Féin movement. In literary terms, this period saw a renaissance in Irish drama and poetry in particular and a move away from realism.

Yeats

      The preeminent writer—and the architect—of the Irish literary renaissance was William Butler Yeats (Yeats, William Butler), whose remarkable career encompassed both this revival and the development of European literary Modernism in the 1920s and '30s. In both movements Yeats was a key participant. While the renaissance gave new life—and new texts—to Irish nationalism in the late 19th century, Yeats aimed to produce a new kind of modern Irish literature in the English language. Toward the end of his life, while he was writing some of his greatest poetry, Yeats wrote of this seeming paradox:

I owe my soul to Shakespeare, to Spenser, and to Blake…and to the English language in which I think, speak and write…; my hatred tortures me with love, my love with hate.

      Yeats's career falls roughly into three phases. An early romantic period produced work saturated by folklore, occultism, and Celtic mythology, such as the collection The Wanderings of Oisín (1889) and the play The Countess Cathleen (1892, first performed 1899). The latter stirred particular religious controversy among Roman Catholics. Yeats's counterversion of that play was Cathleen Ni Houlihan (1902), which became the central literary moment of the renaissance. In that play—set in 1798, the year of the Irish Rebellion—an old woman persuades a young man to forgo marriage and fight for his country instead; upon leaving the man at the end of the play, she is reported to have been transformed into a young queen, thereby allegorizing the rejuvenation of Ireland by heroic male sacrifice. Near the end of his life, Yeats would write, in reference to the Easter Rising of 1916: “Did that play of mine send out / Certain men the English shot?”

      A mature middle period saw Yeats's continued preoccupation with the matter of Ireland, particularly during the revolutionary years 1916–23. In 1904 Yeats—with playwright and folklorist Isabella Augusta, Lady Gregory (Gregory, Augusta, Lady)—founded in Dublin the Abbey Theatre, one of Europe's earliest national theatres. For the Abbey, between 1915 and 1920, he wrote At the Hawk's Well, The Only Jealousy of Emer, The Dreaming of the Bones, and Calvary, published together in 1921 as Four Plays for Dancers. In the first two—and in On Baile's Strand (1904), The Green Helmet (1910), and The Death of Cuchulain (1939)—Yeats embodies his changing view of Ireland in Cuchulain ( Cú Chulainn), the powerful but ultimately maimed hero of Ulster legend. Strongly influenced by the nonrealistic dance-based conventions of the Japanese Noh theatre, these plays radically challenged theatrical convention.

      Yeats's vision grew increasingly apocalyptic as he aged. The executions of the leaders of the Easter Rising led to some of his most powerful work, notably the poem "Easter 1916" (1921), in which he marks the transformation of political activists into martyrs and the alteration in his own opinion of them, for all is “changed, changed utterly: / A terrible beauty is born.” The late poems are to some extent his greatest. In "The Second Coming" (1921), "Meditations in Time of Civil War" (1928), "Leda and the Swan" (1928), "Sailing to Byzantium" (1928), "Among School Children" (1928), and "Long-Legged Fly" (1939), among many others, Yeats created a body of work in which both the nation-changing events Ireland experienced in these years and his own journey toward old age and death were filtered through an elaborate personal belief system. Outlined in A Vision (1925; rev. ed. 1937), Yeats's philosophy is an obscure system of gyres and oppositions, with the poet aiming for what he called “unity of being.” This notion of system is crucial to understanding Yeats, for it marked him as essentially Romantic, an heir to the English poet and visionary William Blake (Blake, William). It also differentiated him from many of the other great Modernist poets of the period, for whom disintegration or chaos represented a more seductive aesthetic. In 1923, two years before Shaw, Yeats became the first Irish writer to receive a Nobel Prize for Literature.

Synge

      The most original playwright of the many given their start by the Abbey Theatre was John Millington Synge (Synge, John Millington). An Anglo-Irish Protestant of means, Synge spent time on the remote Aran Islands, which inspired him to identify the west of Ireland as a site of authentic Irishness. Through his plays he planted this idea firmly at the heart of the Irish literary renaissance. In the one-act plays In the Shadow of the Glen (first performed 1903) and Riders to the Sea (1904) and the three-act The Well of the Saints (1905), the language, character, and humour of the Irish peasant, not least the female peasant, were rendered in a manner that broke with earlier comic depictions by Macklin, Sheridan, and others. But it was with his darkly comic masterpiece The Playboy of the Western World (1907)—based on a story he had overheard in western Ireland—that Synge gave the fledgling national-theatre movement its most explosive moment. The Playboy, Christy Mahon, is a young man who claims—falsely, it turns out—to have run away from the family farm after killing his father with a spade. Rather than provoking outrage, Christy becomes a local hero, especially to the local women who clamour for his sexual attention. The play's bawdy irreverence and its perceived insult to the piety of Irish Catholic womanhood offended nationalists. In 1907, during the play's second performance at the Abbey, the use of the word shift (to refer to a girl's undergarment) provoked a riot; subsequent performances were plagued by protests and disorder.

Joyce

      Unlike many of the major Irish writers of the Irish literary renaissance—such as Yeats, Synge, Lady Gregory, and AE (George William Russell)—James Joyce (Joyce, James), Ireland's greatest and most influential modern novelist, was a Roman Catholic. His religion and his complex, critical relationship to it—in which early devotion gave way to a deep agnosticism that was yet indebted to the symbolism and structures of Catholicism—remained a central preoccupation. The Joycean artist-hero occupies a messianic (and, as some have argued, pervasively autobiographical) role in Joyce's aesthetic; this figure is most clearly embodied in the character of Stephen Dedalus, who is incrementally developed in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) and Ulysses (1922).

      Joyce's lifelong literary engagement with Ireland was conducted, geographically speaking, elsewhere. His major works were written in exile—Zürich, Paris, Trieste—and were initially published with difficulty, often serially in small magazines and pamphlets. Joyce's fictional debut was Dubliners (1914), a collection of short stories. These tales stand in sharp contrast to the idealized versions of Irishness that coloured much writing of the renaissance; they are filled with the sense of paralysis that Joyce perceived as constricting the Catholic Dublin society of which he wrote. He perfected what he famously called a style of “scrupulous meanness” for Dubliners, as befitted the bleak, claustrophobic world of his characters. But in the final and best-known story, "The Dead" (written as a kind of coda for the collection, in part as an effort to lift its unremitting mood of pessimism), Joyce produced the powerful, lyrical tone that would characterize his later work. Dubliners was a turning point in the genre of the short story, a genre that would become central to Irish writing as the 20th century progressed.

      In A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Joyce wrote a Modernist bildungsroman in which the young, developing scholar-artist Stephen Dedalus emerges from the restrictive religious and linguistic conventions within which he has been raised, able, as he says, “to forge in the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race.” Joyce's style reflects his protagonist's spiritual and artistic journey (the novel opens with nursery-rhyme language) as well as his own conviction, as he described it in his essay "A Portrait of the Artist" (1904), that “the past assuredly implies a fluid succession of presents.” But it was Ulysses (1922) that transformed the European novel. Written between 1914 and 1921, as war altered the European landscape, Joyce's epic—loosely organized on Homer's model of Ulysses' journey home to his wife and son—is set in Dublin on a single day: June 16, 1904. The Dublin of Ulysses (unlike that of Dubliners) is full of lively talk, sex, and song, as well as isolation, betrayal, and loneliness. In the novel's “succession of presents,” Stephen Dedalus reappears, along with the other main character, a Dublin Jew called Leopold Bloom. The novel moves between Stephen's and Bloom's perambulations around the city, relaying their thoughts of fantasy, fear, and the everyday through its stream-of-consciousness (stream of consciousness) narrative technique. In Ulysses Joyce reconstructs the basic forms of fiction and creates a new kind of novel in which he can attend to myth, history, naturalistic detail, epic, epiphany, and love in a frequently bewildering range of styles. Joyce created new words, played with existing ones, and turned traditional syntax topsy-turvy. Needing to find ever-more-flexible language to express his vision of humanity, he went still further in Finnegans Wake (1939), his last novel, creating an almost impenetrable, apparently (though not in fact) chaotic prose poetry.

Beckett and O'Brien

      The magnitude of Joyce's influence on European Modernism is unquestionable and colossal. It also pervades subsequent Irish literature, but in this respect two very different Irish writers stand out: Flann O'Brien (O'Brien, Flann) and Samuel Beckett (Beckett, Samuel). But these were no mere imitators of Joyce. Indeed, the very differences between their imaginative worlds—one Roman Catholic, cynical, and playful and the other Protestant, bleak, and intense—stand as testimony to the capaciousness of the Joycean inheritance. O'Brien—the pen name adopted by Brian O'Nolan, who also used the name Myles na gCopaleen as a columnist for The Irish Times—sent a copy of his first novel, At Swim-Two-Birds (1939), to Joyce. “That's a real writer with a true comic spirit,” Joyce remarked. At Swim-Two-Birds, a book about books within a book, mixes and subverts genres—from cheap American westerns to Irish myths—and sports multiple narratives and characters never entirely under the control of their “authors.” Once thought of as Modernist, the novel today seems to parody late 20th-century postmodernism even as it anticipated it. At Swim-Two-Birds is a bravura performance, all the more remarkable when viewed against the background of the pinched, provincial world of censorship and social conformity from which it emerged—and, indeed, which it satirized. One of the most successful and funniest satires of the pieties of the Irish Free State was O'Brien's An béal bocht, published in Irish in 1941 and translated into English in 1973 as The Poor Mouth, which remains an Irish comic classic. Three more novels followed, the last published posthumously: The Hard Life (1961), The Dalkey Archive (1964), and The Third Policeman (1967).

      Unlike O'Brien, but like his mentor and friend Joyce, Beckett (Beckett, Samuel) did not conduct his literary career in Ireland. He spent almost all his adult life in France, and he moved freely between writing in French and in English. His first fictions—the short stories in More Pricks than Kicks (1934) and the novel Murphy (1938)—were in English, but Beckett increasingly turned to French, providing his own English translations. His international reputation rests ultimately on his audacious, spare, challenging drama. En attendant Godot (1952; Waiting for Godot) transformed European theatre just as Ulysses had transformed the European novel. In the play the two characters (often called tramps, although Beckett never described them as such) Estragon and Vladimir, later joined by passersby Pozzo and Lucky, engage in seemingly directionless banter while waiting for Godot, who in the end never arrives. Like all of Beckett's work, Waiting for Godot is linguistically lean and reveals its author's immense philosophical learning. Beckett was interested not in politics or literary movements but in the big existential questions, and his work shows the influence of René Descartes (Descartes, René), whom he considered his favourite philosopher. His stagecraft was minimalist, a characteristic that reached its acme in Not I (1973), which features a disembodied mouth, encased in darkness, from which an endless flow of words cascades. Many of the plays—including Fin de partie (1957; Endgame), Krapp's Last Tape (1960), and Happy Days (1961)—are characterized by Beckett's tendency toward silence. As his career lengthened, Beckett's plays became even shorter and sparer. In 1969 he became Ireland's third Nobel laureate in literature.

Ireland and Northern Ireland

 Both Beckett and Joyce, 20th-century Ireland's towering literary presences, were exiles. But that century's literary history is also tied to the traumatic political and cultural changes that Ireland sustained and to which writers who stayed at home responded. By 1923, Ireland had experienced rebellion (the Easter Rising), the Irish War of Independence (1919–21), a civil war (1922–23), and the partition of the country into two states. Of the 32 Irish counties, 26 were newly independent; 6, in northeast Ulster, became “Northern Ireland.” In the independent counties, a new political and cultural dispensation reigned in which the energies of revolutionary nationalism and the Irish literary renaissance gave way to the lethargies of a constrictive, censorious, and clericalist Roman Catholicism, a narrow and conservative nationalism, and a parochial, self-imposed isolation that would last until the 1960s. While the new independent establishment officially sanctified the Irish Revolution, it now tried to close off revolutionary ideas. Writers inevitably reacted to these new conditions, many of them negatively.

      In the theatre, working-class Protestant Sean O'Casey (O'Casey, Sean), who had been involved in radical Dublin politics in the period before 1916, placed a new antinationalist and socialist agenda on the stage. His plays often explore the effect on ordinary Dubliners of events sparked by political unrest. The Shadow of a Gunman (1923), for instance, explores one family's experience of raids by Black and Tans (Black and Tan) (members of a British auxiliary police force) during the War of Independence. Juno and the Paycock (1924) takes the civil war as its backdrop, and The Plough and the Stars (1926) deals with the Easter Rising. All three plays were performed at the Abbey Theatre.

      O'Casey's was very much an urban drama. His ear for Dublin street language and his strong, resilient, funny characters—particularly female ones—made O'Casey's plays fresh and natural, especially when read against the older work of another great Abbey playwright, Synge. In O'Casey's three major plays, the violence of the public world, which happens offstage, is set alongside a private domestic universe (usually Dublin tenement rooms) in which humans attempt to survive and make sense of the violence. The pieties of revolutionary nationalism do not come off well in these plays. In 1926, with the fourth performance of The Plough and the Stars, O'Casey gave the Abbey its second great set of riots; Yeats confronted the audience and, reminding them of the Playboy riots of 1907, famously declared: “You have disgraced yourselves again.”

      Brendan Behan (Behan, Brendan), another Dublin playwright, stepped straight out of the tenement world depicted by O'Casey. As a young volunteer in the Irish Republican Army, he was arrested in England in 1939; he later turned these prison experiences into an acclaimed memoir, Borstal Boy (1959). A further stint in prison, this time in Dublin, inspired his finest play, The Quare Fellow (1954), the story of a hanging and a protest against capital punishment.

      Irish fiction became largely concentrated in a newly embraced national genre after independence: the short story. Frank O'Connor (O'Connor, Frank) and Sean O'Faolain (O'Faolain, Sean), both from Cork, had been pupils of the nationalist writer Daniel Corkery, whose account of 18th-century Irish literary history, The Hidden Ireland (1925), was a key moment in the development of a native Irish literary criticism. O'Connor and O'Faolain, however, rejected their early affinities with republicanism and nationalism and began to produce stories that dealt squarely and realistically with the contemporary condition of their country. O'Faolain also founded a literary magazine, The Bell, in 1940, and it remained a crucial outlet for the best Irish writers, particularly during World War II, when Ireland's neutrality isolated it even further from wider European literary currents. Work in the short story similar to that of O'Connor and O'Faolain was done by Liam O'Flaherty (O'Flaherty, Liam), Michael McLaverty, and Mary Lavin. McLaverty was for a time the lone Roman Catholic literary voice in Protestant and unionist-dominated Northern Ireland, while Lavin, born in the United States, made middle-class domestic life her subject. Elizabeth Bowen (Bowen, Elizabeth), who was born in Dublin but spent much of her adult life in London, began publishing volumes of short stories in the 1920s.

      What might be called a “counterrevival” in response to the Irish literary renaissance continued also in the field of poetry. Patrick Kavanagh (Kavanagh, Patrick), an impoverished and largely self-educated farmer from County Monaghan, produced an extraordinary body of work in which he managed to represent the grim realities of Irish rural life in language that is also luminous with a simple Catholic spirituality. Landscape and the reality of place—as opposed to an ill-defined, misty version of the west of Ireland—dominate Kavanagh's vision. His greatest work is his long poem The Great Hunger (1942), in which the celibate, lonely life of a farmer is laid out in a bleak, earthy lyricism. Kavanagh powerfully shaped the poetry of a later generation of writers, in particular that of Seamus Heaney.

      A more cerebral poet than Kavanagh, and one who had to work harder to throw off the long shadow of Yeats, was Austin Clarke. Like Kavanagh's, Clarke's life as a writer was materially difficult. The high point of his poetry came late, with the long poem Mnemosyne Lay in Dust (1966), about the nervous breakdown Clarke had suffered almost 50 years previously. The masterpiece of exiled Ulsterman Louis MacNeice (MacNeice, Louis), who is generally associated with the W.H. Auden (Auden, W H) generation of English leftist poets, is Autumn Journal (1939), its attack on Irish parochialism mingled with a powerful Modernist meditation on the rise of fascism in Europe. While James Stephens (Stephens, James) was a novelist and short-story writer, he also wrote poetry; his collections include Insurrections (1909) and Reincarnations (1918).

The 1960s and beyond

      The 1960s changed Irish culture, often painfully. In literary terms, the government censorship of the preceding 30 years began to be challenged in a more sustained fashion. In 1960 Edna O'Brien (O'Brien, Edna) published The Country Girls, the first novel in a trilogy that helped open up discussion of the role of women and sex in Irish society and of Roman Catholicism's oppressive force upon women. The novel was banned, and O'Brien left Ireland shortly thereafter. John McGahern (McGahern, John) too had his early work banned, but he continued to produce novels that subtly probed the changes rapidly transforming Ireland. Amongst Women (1990) is his most critically acclaimed and moving novel.

      In a number of novels published in the late 1980s and '90s, it seemed that Irish writers for the first time were finally able to explore the political and cultural transformations their country had undergone in the previous 60 years. Among these, the work of Patrick McCabe, in particular The Butcher Boy (1992) and The Dead School (1995), stands out. So too does that of John Banville (Banville, John), among Ireland's preeminent novelists at the end of the 20th century. His extraordinary novel Birchwood (1973) is a postmodern, post-Joycean revisitation of the Big House novel, a genre that has endured throughout modern Irish fiction.

      But the main cultural and political crisis in Ireland in the 1960s and beyond was the explosion of the “Troubles,” a term used to describe the violence between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland. This violence was accompanied by a necessarily urgent literary reaction—some 800 Troubles-related novels, for instance, had been published by the early 21st century—and there began in Northern Ireland an extraordinary poetic flowering. The American-born John Montague initiated this process with the long poem The Rough Field (1972), a milestone in contemporary Irish poetry, but his reputation was soon eclipsed by the arrival of Seamus Heaney (Heaney, Seamus), who in 1995 became Ireland's fourth winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature. Heaney's lyrical, muscular, aural poetry, like Montague's, delved into the Irish past and into what Heaney called the “word-hoard” of the Irish landscape. His frequent use of traditional forms (as in his sonnet sequences) produced a body of work as accessible and beautiful as it is demanding.

      The Troubles yielded other literary and cultural engagements that shaped the ways in which Irish literature as a whole is now understood. The Field Day Theatre Company, founded in 1980 in Londonderry (Derry) by playwright Brian Friel (Friel, Brian) and actor Stephen Rea, instigated a new movement both in drama and in cultural politics that sought to undo some of the damage done by partition to modern Irish self-perception and self-representation. Friel, already established as Ireland's leading playwright, wrote and in 1980 produced Field Day's landmark play Translations; it is set in mid-19th-century Donegal, where British Ordnance Survey engineers are remapping and translating the Irish landscape into English. The play's performance was a key moment in the transformation of Irish writing into a self-consciously postcolonial national literature.

 Given its geographical and demographic diminutiveness and its catastrophic history, Ireland occupies an unexpectedly elevated position in European literature. Despite the country's apparently endless preoccupation with its past, its literary present and future at the beginning of the 21st century appeared vibrant and promising. Prominent poets included Paul Muldoon, Medbh McGuckian, Derek Mahon, Michael Longley, and Thomas Kinsella (Kinsella, Thomas). McCabe, Banville, Jennifer Johnston (Johnston, Jennifer), William Trevor (Trevor, William), Roddy Doyle, Colm Tóibín, Neil Jordan, and Seamus Deane wrote fiction, and Friel, Frank McGuinness, Tom Murphy, Martin MacDonagh, and Marina Carr wrote for the theatre.

Additional Reading

General

The most comprehensive single source is Seamus Deane, Andrew Carpenter, and Jonathan Williams (eds.), The Field Day Anthology of Irish Writing, 5 vol. (1991–2002); each of the sections of this useful anthology is introduced by an essay. A concise account is Seamus Deane, A Short History of Irish Literature (1986). Another survey is Roger McHugh and Maurice Harmon, A Short History of Anglo-Irish Literature from Its Origins to the Present Day (1982). A more extended history with comprehensive bibliographies is Margaret Kelleher and Philip O'Leary (eds.), The Cambridge History of Irish Literature, 2 vol. (2006), which provides a collection of essays by experts in different genres and periods. Useful primers are Robert Hogan (ed.), Dictionary of Irish Literature, rev. and expanded ed. (1996); Robert Welch (ed.), The Concise Oxford Companion to Irish Literature (2000); and Denis Lane and Carol McCrory Lane (compilers and eds.), Modern Irish Literature (1988).Broad critical surveys include James Cahalan, Great Hatred, Little Room: The Irish Historical Novel (1983); Nicholas Grene, The Politics of Irish Drama: Plays in Context from Boucicault to Friel (1999); and W.J. McCormack, From Burke to Beckett: Ascendancy, Tradition, and Betrayal in Literary History, rev. and enlarged ed. (1994). Thomas Kinsella, The Dual Tradition: An Essay on Poetry and Politics in Ireland (1995), is an important and influential consideration of the hybridity of Irish literature. A collection of essays on key canonical writers and texts is Declan Kiberd, Irish Classics (2000).

The 18th century

One of the most influential studies of the 18th century is Daniel Corkery, The Hidden Ireland: A Study of Gaelic Munster in the Eighteenth Century (1925, reissued 1975). Corkery's “hidden Ireland” thesis is reengaged, refurbished, and refined in Terry Eagleton, Heathcliff and the Great Hunger: Studies in Irish Culture (1995); and Joep Leerssen, Mere Irish and Fíor-ghael: Studies in the Idea of Irish Nationality, Its Development, and Literary Expression Prior to the Nineteenth Century, 2nd ed. (1997). Similar issues of ethnicity, identity, and scholarship are addressed in Clare O'Halloran, Golden Ages and Barbarous Nations: Antiquarian Debate and Cultural Politics in Ireland, c. 1750–1800 (2004). The impact of politics on writing during the 18th century is perhaps at its most vivid on the stage, as demonstrated by Helen M. Burke, Riotous Performances: The Struggle for Hegemony in the Irish Theater, 1712–1784 (2003); and Christopher J. Wheatley, Beneath Iërne's Banners: Irish Protestant Drama of the Restoration and Eighteenth Century (1999).Wide-ranging anthologies that include the work of such major figures as Jonathan Swift and Edmund Burke as well as of lesser-known writers are Andrew Carpenter (ed.), Verse in English from Eighteenth-Century Ireland (1998); and A. Norman Jeffares and Peter van de Kamp (eds.), Irish Literature: The Eighteenth Century (2006).

The 19th century

Surveys of 19th-century literature include John Cronin, The Anglo-Irish Novel: The Nineteenth Century (1980); Ina Ferris, The Romantic National Tale and the Question of Ireland (2002); James H. Murphy, Ireland: A Social, Cultural, and Literary History, 1791–1891 (2003); Patrick Rafroidi, Irish Literature in English: The Romantic Period (1789–1850), 2 vol. (1980; originally published in French, 1972); and Robert Welch, Irish Poetry from Moore to Yeats (1980). An influential and wide-ranging study is Joep Leerssen, Remembrance and Imagination: Patterns in the Historical and Literary Representation of Ireland in the Nineteenth Century (1996). A useful emphasis on the marriage of politics and literature can be found in Michael Brown, The Politics of Irish Literature: From Thomas Davis to W.B. Yeats (1972).Accounts dealing specifically with the Anglo-Irish include Vera Kreilkamp, The Anglo-Irish Novel and the Big House (1998); A.C. Partridge, Language and Society in Anglo-Irish Literature (1984); and Terrence McDonough (ed.), Was Ireland a Colony?: Economics, Politics, and Culture in Nineteenth-Century Ireland (2005).

The 20th century

Although it deals with only the Irish Republic and not Northern Ireland, a key general text is Terence Brown, Ireland: A Social and Cultural History, 1922–2002, rev. ed. (2004). Other wide-ranging accounts of the modern period include Hugh Kenner, A Colder Eye: The Modern Irish Writers (1983); and Declan Kiberd, Inventing Ireland (1995). Seamus Deane, Celtic Revivals: Essays in Modern Irish Literature, 1880–1980 (1985), was influential in reshaping the study of 20th-century literature. David Pierce, Light, Freedom, and Song: A Cultural History of Modern Irish Writing (2005); and David Pierce (ed.), Irish Writing in the Twentieth Century (2000), contain useful bibliographies, chronologies, and suggestions for further reading. Studies of the period include Patrick Rafroidi and Terence Brown (eds.), The Irish Short Story (1979); Gregory Castle, Modernism and the Celtic Revival (2001); Neil Corcoran, Poets of Modern Ireland: Text, Context, Intertext (1999); Douglas Dunn (ed.), Two Decades of Irish Writing (1975); and John Goodby, Irish Poetry Since 1950 (2000). Tom Paulin, Ireland and the English Crisis (1984), is a provocative set of essays on Irish culture.Studies that examine the works and lives of individual authors include Richard Ellmann, Four Dubliners: Wilde, Yeats, Joyce, and Beckett (1986); and Ronan McDonald, Tragedy and Irish Writing: Synge, O'Casey, Beckett (2001). Matthew Campbell (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Contemporary Irish Poetry (2003); and Shaun Richards (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Twentieth-Century Irish Drama (2004), are comprehensive collection of essays. Julia Carlson (ed.), Banned in Ireland: Censorship & the Irish Writer (1990), includes interviews with writers.

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