flight, history of

flight, history of

Introduction
 development of heavier-than-air flying machines. Important landmarks and events along the way to the invention of the airplane include an understanding of the dynamic reaction of lifting surfaces (or wings), building absolutely reliable engines that produced sufficient power to propel an airframe, and solving the problem of flight control in three dimensions. Once the Wright brothers demonstrated that the basic technical problems had been overcome at the start of the 20th century, military and civil aviation developed quickly.

 This article tells the story of the invention of the airplane and the development of civil aviation from piston-engine airplanes to jets. For a history of military aviation, see military aircraft; for lighter-than-air flight, see airship. See airplane for a full treatment of the principles of aircraft flight and operations, aircraft configurations, and aircraft materials and construction. For a comparison of select pioneer aircraft, see below (flight, history of).

The invention of the airplane
      On the evening of Sept. 18, 1901, Wilbur Wright (Wright, Wilbur and Orville), a 33-year-old businessman from Dayton, Ohio, addressed a distinguished group of Chicago engineers on the subject of “Some Aeronautical Experiments” that he had conducted with his brother Orville Wright over the previous two years. “The difficulties which obstruct the pathway to success in flying machine construction,” he noted, “are of three general classes.”

● Those which relate to the construction of the sustaining wings.
● Those which relate to the generation and application of the power required to drive the machine through the air.
● Those relating to the balancing and steering of the machine after it is actually in flight.

      This clear analysis—the clearest possible statement of the problem of heavier-than-air flight—became the basis for the Wright brothers' work over the next half decade. What was known at that time in each of these three critical areas and what additional research was required are considered below.

Construction of the sustaining wings (wing): the problem of lift
 The dream of human flight must have begun with observation of birds soaring through the sky. For millennia, however, progress was retarded by attempts to design aircraft that emulated the beating of a bird's wings. The generations of experimenters and dreamers who focused their attention on ornithopters (ornithopter)—machines in which flapping wings generated both lift and propulsion—contributed nothing substantial to the final solution of the problems blocking the route to mechanical flight.

      Thus, the story of the invention of the airplane begins in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, with the first serious research into aerodynamics—the study of the forces operating on a solid body (for instance, a wing when it is immersed in a stream of air). Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo Galilei (Galileo) in Italy, Christiaan Huygens (Huygens, Christiaan) in the Netherlands, and Isaac Newton (Newton, Sir Isaac) in England all contributed to an understanding of the relationship between resistance (drag) and such factors as the surface area of an object exposed to the stream and the density of a fluid. Swiss mathematicians Daniel Bernoulli (Bernoulli, Daniel) and Leonhard Euler (Euler, Leonhard) and British engineer John Smeaton (Smeaton, John) explained the relationship between pressure and velocity and provided information that enabled a later generation of engineers to calculate aerodynamic forces.

 George Cayley (Cayley, Sir George, 6th Baronet), an English baronet, bridged the gap between physical theory, engineering research, and the age-old dream of flight. He gathered critical aerodynamic data of value in the design of winged aircraft, using instruments developed in the 18th century for research into ballistics. Cayley was also a pioneer of aircraft design, explaining that a successful flying machine would have separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control. While he did produce designs for ornithopters, he was the first experimenter to focus on fixed-wing aircraft.

      Cayley found the secrets of lift in the shape of a bird's wing, surmising that an arched, or cambered, wing would produce greater lift than a flat wing because of lower pressure on top of the curved surface (see Bernoulli's theorem). His observations of birds in flight led him to recognize the superiority of relatively long and narrow (in modern terminology, high-aspect-ratio) wings for soaring. As a practical matter, however, he designed biplane and multiplane wings (the first of their kind) as a means of providing maximum surface area in a strong and easily braced structure.

      Addressing the first meeting of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain in 1866, Francis H. Wenham provided a concise and forceful restatement of Cayley's most important ideas regarding wings. Five years later, in cooperation with John Browning, Wenham built the first wind tunnel, a device that would have a profound effect on the study of wings and the development of improved airfoils. Horatio Phillips, a fellow member of the Aeronautical Society, developed an even more effective wind tunnel design, and he patented (1884) a two-surface, cambered-airfoil design that provided the foundation for most subsequent work in the field.

 Beginning in the 1870s, Otto Lilienthal (Lilienthal, Otto), a German mechanical engineer, undertook the most important studies of wing design since the time of Cayley. His detailed measurements of the forces operating on a cambered wing at various angles of attack provided precise bits of data employed by later experimenters—including, in the United States, the engineer Octave Chanute (Chanute, Octave) and the Wright brothers—to calculate the performance of their own wings. Having published the results of his research, Lilienthal designed, built, and flew a series of monoplane and biplane gliders, completing as many as 2,000 flights between 1890 and the time of his fatal glider crash in August 1896.

      At the outset of their own aeronautical experiments, the Wright brothers carefully studied the work of their predecessors and decided that there was little need for them to focus on wing design. “Men already know how to construct wings…,” Wilbur explained in 1901, “which when driven through the air at sufficient speed will not only sustain themselves but also that of the engine, and of the engineer as well.”

 Two years of experimenting with gliders, however, demonstrated the need to pay considerably more attention to wing design. Beginning in November 1901, the Wright brothers used a wind tunnel of their own design to gather information that enabled them to calculate the values of lift and drag for an entire series of airfoils at various angles of attack and to measure the performance of wings with differing aspect ratios, tip shapes, and other design features. That information culminated in the Wright glider of 1902, a breakthrough machine whose wing design enabled the Wright brothers to take the final steps to the invention of the airplane.

The generation and application of power: the problem of propulsion
      At the beginning of the 19th century, sustained powered heavier-than-air flight remained an impossibility because of the lack of suitable power plants. The level of technology that would permit even limited powered flight lay over a century in the future. Clockwork mechanisms and other sorts of spring-powered systems were clearly unsuitable for human flight. While electricity powered several airships (airship) during the last quarter of the century, the poor power-to-weight ratio of such systems made it difficult to imagine an electrically propelled airplane.

      The aeronautical potential of propulsion systems ranging from hot-air engines to gunpowder to compressed air and even to carbonic-acid power plants was discussed during the course of the century. The Australian Lawrence Hargrave (Hargrave, Lawrence), in particular, experimented with compressed-gas propulsion systems. Nevertheless, steam and internal-combustion engines quickly emerged as the choice of most serious experimenters. As early as 1829, F.D. Artingstall constructed a full-scale steam-powered ornithoptor, the wings of which were smashed in operation just before the boiler exploded. A lightweight steam engine developed by the English pioneer Frederick Stringfellow in 1868 to power a triplane model aircraft survives in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

 Russian Alexandr Mozhaysky (Mozhaysky, Aleksandr Fyodorovich) (1884), Englishman Hiram Maxim (Maxim, Hiram Percy) (1894), and Frenchman Clément Ader (Ader, Clément) (1890; see Ader Éole and Ader Avion (Ader Avion III)) each jumped full-scale steam-powered machines off the ground for short distances, although none of these craft was capable of sustained or controlled flight. In the United States, Samuel Pierpont Langley (Langley, Samuel Pierpont) achieved the first sustained flights in 1896 when he launched two of his relatively large steam-powered model aircraft (see Langley aerodrome No. 5) on aerial journeys of up to three-quarters of a mile (1.2 km) over the Potomac River.

      As the end of the 19th century approached, the internal-combustion (internal-combustion engine) engine emerged as an even more promising aeronautical power plant. The process had begun in 1860, when Étienne Lenoir (Lenoir, Étienne) of Belgium built the first internal-combustion engine, fueled with illuminating gas. In Germany, Nikolaus A. Otto (Otto, Nikolaus August) took the next step in 1876, producing a four-stroke engine burning liquid fuel. German engineer Gottlieb Daimler (Daimler, Gottlieb) pioneered the development of lightweight high-speed gasoline engines, one of which he mounted on a bicycle in 1885. German engineer Karl Benz (Benz, Karl) produced the first true automobile the following year, a sturdy tricycle with seating for the operator and a passenger. In 1888 Daimler persuaded Karl Woelfert, a Lutheran minister who longed to fly, to equip an experimental airship with a single-cylinder gasoline engine that developed all of eight horsepower. The initial test was marginally successful, although the open-flame ignition system presented an obvious danger to a hydrogen-filled airship. In fact, Woelfert perished when an internal-combustion engine finally did set a much larger airship on fire in 1897.

      At the beginning of their career in aeronautics, the Wright brothers recognized that automotive enthusiasts were producing ever lighter and more powerful internal-combustion engines. The brothers assumed that if their gliding experiments progressed to the point where they required a power plant, it would not be difficult to buy or build a gasoline engine for their aircraft.

      They were essentially correct. Having flown their successful glider of 1902, the Wright brothers were confident that their wings would lift the weight of a powered flying machine and that they could control such a craft in the air. Moreover, three years of experience with gliders, and the information gathered with their wind tunnel, enabled them to calculate the precise amount of power required for sustained flight. Unable to interest an experienced manufacturer in producing an engine meeting their relatively narrow power-for-weight specifications, the brothers designed and built their own power plant.

      Charles Taylor, a machinist whom the brothers employed in their bicycle shop, produced a four-cylinder engine with a cast aluminum block that produced roughly 12.5 horsepower at a total weight of some 200 pounds (90 kg), including fuel and coolant. It was by no means the most advanced or efficient aeronautical power plant in the world. Langley (Langley, Samuel Pierpont), who was also building a full-scale powered flying machine, spent thousands of dollars to produce a five-cylinder radial engine with a total weight equal to that of the Wright engine but developing 52.4 horsepower. Langley produced an engine far superior to that of the Wright brothers—and an airplane, the aerodrome No. 6, that failed to fly when tested in 1903. The Wright brothers, on the other hand, developed an engine that produced exactly the power required to propel their flyer of 1903 (Wright flyer of 1903)—the world's first airplane to demonstrate sustained flight.

      The design of the propellers for the 1903 airplane represented a much more difficult task, and a much greater technical achievement, than the development of the engine. The propellers not only had to be efficient but had to produce a calculated amount of thrust when operated at a particular speed by the engine. It is important to recognize, however, that once powered flight had been achieved, the development of more powerful and efficient engines became an essential element in the drive to improve aircraft performance.

Balancing and steering the machine: the problem of control
      Having decided that the design of wings and the development of a power plant were fairly well in hand, the Wright brothers focused on the element of control. Other experimenters had given some thought to the subject. Cayley was the first to use an elevator for control in pitch (directing the nose up and down). Throughout the second half of the 19th century, airships had used rudders (rudder) for yaw control (directing the nose to the right and left).

      It was far more difficult to conceive of a way to control an aircraft in roll (that is, balancing the wingtips or banking the aircraft). Moreover, most experimenters were convinced that the operator of a flying machine would find it difficult or impossible to exercise full control over a machine that was free to operate in all three axes of motion at once. As a result, far more thought had been given to the means of achieving automatic or inherent stability than to active control systems.

      Cayley, for example, suggested dihedral wings (wingtips angled up from the midpoint of the wing) as a means of achieving a measure of stability in roll; he also recommended the use of a pendulum to control pitch. French aviation pioneer Alphonse Penaud (Pénaud, Alphonse) was the first to produce an inherently stable aircraft, the Planophore (Pénaud Planophore) (1871), which featured a pusher propeller powered by twisted rubber strands. The hand-launched model featured dihedral wings for stability in roll and a horizontal surface set at a slight negative angle with regard to the wings to provide stability in pitch. With the addition of a vertical surface for stability in yaw, this was the approach taken by virtually all experimenters with model aircraft, including Langley.

 Model builders were forced to employ automatic stability, but those experimenters who built and flew gliders had to develop active flight controls. Virtually all of the pre-Wright brothers glider pilots, including Lilienthal, used hang-gliding techniques, in which the pilot shifted his weight in order to alter the position of the centre of gravity of the machine with regard to the centre of pressure. Weight shifting was dangerous and limiting, however. If simple movements of the operator's body were to have a significant impact on the motion of the machine, the wing area had to be reasonably small. This limited the amount of lift that could be generated. Moreover, it was by no means difficult for such an aircraft to reach a stall or some other uncontrolled position from which weight shifting could not effect a recovery—as demonstrated by the deaths of Lilienthal (1896) and the English experimenter Percy Pilcher (Pilcher, Percy Sinclair) (1899) in glider crashes.

      Determined to avoid those problems, the Wright brothers created a positive control system that enabled (indeed, required) the pilot to exercise absolute command over the motion of his machine in every axis and at every moment. Others had rejected that goal because they feared that pilots would be overwhelmed by the difficulty of controlling a machine moving in three dimensions. The Wright brothers, however, had recognized how easily and quickly a bicycle rider internalized the motions required to maintain balance and control, and they were certain that it would be the same with an airplane.

 Recognizing the dangers inherent in attempting to rely on control of the centre of gravity, the Wright brothers devised a system to control the movement of the centre of pressure on the wing. They achieved this by enabling the pilot to induce a twist across the upper and lower wings in either direction, thus increasing the lift on one side and decreasing it on the other. This technique, which they called “wing warping,” solved the crucial problem of roll. Meanwhile, an elevator (a horizontal surface placed at the front of the aircraft) provided the means of pitch control. When the Wright brothers introduced a rudder to their design in 1902, this device was used to compensate for increased drag on the positively warped side of the aircraft. In 1905 they disconnected the rudder from the wing warping system, enabling the pilot to exercise independent control in yaw for the first time. The Wright flyer of 1905 is therefore considered to be the first fully controllable, practical airplane.

Other aviation pioneers
 The work of the Wright brothers inspired an entire generation of flying-machine experimenters in Europe and the Americas. The Brazilian experimenter Alberto Santos-Dumont (Santos-Dumont, Alberto), for instance, made the first public flight in Europe in 1906 in his bis (Santos-Dumont No. 14-bis). Frenchman Henri Farman (Farman, Henri) made his first flight the following year in the Farman III, a machine built by Gabriel Voisin (Voisin, Gabriel). Farman also completed the first European circular flight of at least 1 km (0.62 mile) early in 1908. On July 4, 1908, the American Glenn Hammond Curtiss (Curtiss, Glenn Hammond), a leading member of the Aerial Experiment Association (AEA), organized by Alexander Graham Bell (Bell, Alexander Graham), won the Scientific American Trophy for a flight of 1 km in the AEA June Bug.

      The Santos-Dumont, Voisin, and Curtiss machines were all canard (elevator on the nose) biplanes with pusher propellers that were clearly inspired by what the designers knew of the work of the Wright brothers.

  By 1909 radical new monoplane designs had taken to the air, built and flown by men such as the French pioneers Robert Esnault-Pelterie (Esnault-Pelterie, Robert) and Louis Blériot (Blériot, Louis), both of whom were involved in the development of the “stick-and-rudder” cockpit control system that would soon be adopted by other builders. Blériot brought the early experimental era of aviation to an end on July 25, 1909, when he flew his Type XI (Blériot XI) monoplane across the English Channel.

      The following five years, from Blériot's Channel flight to the beginning of World War I, were a period of spectacular growth and development in aviation. Concerned about the potential of military aviation, European leaders invested heavily in the new technology, spending large sums on research and development and working to establish and support the aircraft and engine industries in their own countries. (For an account of the aerial arms race, see military aircraft.) In addition to practical developments in the areas of propulsion and aircraft structural design, the foundations of modern aerodynamic theory were laid by scientists and academics such as Ludwig Prandtl (Prandtl, Ludwig) of Germany. With the possible exception of flying boats (see Curtiss Model E flying boat), an area in which Curtiss continued to dominate, leadership in virtually every phase of aeronautics had passed by 1910 from the United States to Europe, where it would remain throughout World War I.

Tom D. Crouch

List of select pioneer aircraft
       Pioneer aircraft Pioneer aircraftThe table provides a comparison of select pioneer aircraft.

Pistons in the air
      During World War I several farsighted European entrepreneurs, emboldened by wartime progress in aviation, envisioned the possibilities of postwar airline travel. For many months after the war, normal rail travel in Europe remained problematic and irregular because of the shortage of passenger equipment and the destruction of tracks and bridges. In addition, chaotic political conditions in central and eastern Europe often disrupted schedules. The situation opened many possibilities for launching airline routes. Although few airfields existed, aircraft of the postwar era could and did use relatively short sod runways for years, meaning that locating suitable airports (airport) near most cities was not the formidable engineering challenge that emerged in subsequent decades. Characteristically, organizers of the first postwar airlines relied on stocks of inexpensive surplus military planes, especially bombers, such as the De Havilland DH-4, that could be modified to accommodate passengers and mail. Two basic types of piston engines powered the typical fabric-covered biplanes of the early postwar era. In-line engines, with cylinders aligned one behind the other or positioned in two banks in a V-type installation, required a radiator and the circulation of a liquid coolant. Radial engines, with cylinders arranged in a circle around the crankshaft, had numerous small fins on the cylinder that radiated heat to the passing airstream in order to keep the engine cool. These relatively straightforward piston-engine designs made long-range flights possible and opened a new era of passenger travel.

The headliners
  Although airlines ran newspaper advertisements after World War I, the biggest aviation headlines belonged to fliers in relatively primitive piston-engine aircraft that challenged the Atlantic and transcontinental distances. In May 1919, a U.S. Navy Curtiss NC-4 (successor to the Curtiss Model E flying boat) made it from Newfoundland to Portugal by way of the Azores Islands before flying on to Great Britain, compiling 54 hours 31 minutes in the air over its 23-day trip. The following month, former British Royal Air Force (RAF) pilots John Alcock and Arthur Brown made the first nonstop crossing of the Atlantic, requiring 16 hours 28 minutes for the journey from Newfoundland to Ireland in a Vickers Vimy bomber (see photograph—>).

      By 1924 the U.S. Army had completed plans to make the first aerial circumnavigation of the world, sending a quartet of single-engine Douglas “World Cruisers” westward toward Asia. These fabric-covered biplanes featured interchangeable landing gear—replacing wheels with floats for water landings. One plane crashed in Alaska, forcing the two-man crew to hike out of a snowbound wilderness. Near the end of the expedition, a second aircraft, en route to Iceland, went down between the Orkney and Faroe islands. With support from the U.S. Navy, U.S. State Department, and overseas American officials during an odyssey of 23,377 miles (37,622 km) that consumed 175 days, the remaining pair of planes arrived back in Seattle. All this happened before Charles Lindbergh (Lindbergh, Charles A.), flying a single-engine Ryan monoplane, made his nonstop solo flight in 33 hours 30 minutes from New York to Paris in 1927. Lindbergh's flight, in particular, demonstrated the essential reliability of improved radial engines.

 In Britain, overland flights connecting colonial interests down the length of Africa drew considerable attention. Departing London, another pair of ex-RAF pilots battled capricious winds, sudden storms, equatorial updrafts, and assorted adventures before arriving at Cape Town after 45 days and three planes. Alan Cobham (Cobham, Sir Alan J.) repeated the feat in a single-engine commercial plane, surveying a route for Imperial Airways Ltd. from 1925 to 1926. Other British pilots persevered in reaching Australia by way of India (brothers Ross and Keith Smith (Smith, Sir Keith Macpherson; and Smith, Sir Ross Macpherson), 1919) and across the Pacific (Charles Kingsford Smith (Kingsford Smith, Sir Charles Edward) and Charles Ulm, 1928). The challenge of polar flights also engaged a number of daring fliers. Piloting a Fokker trimotor, Richard Byrd (Byrd, Richard E.) made claim to the first flight over the North Pole in 1926, followed by his pioneering expedition with a Ford Motor Company trimotor over the South Pole in 1929.

      The 1930s brought a new round of record flights by Americans. In 1931, with navigator Harold Gatty, Wiley Post (Post, Wiley) piloted a Lockheed Vega 5B monoplane (named Winnie Mae for Post's daughter) around the world in slightly less than 8 days 16 hours. Two years later, with the aid of an autopilot, Post broke his world record during a solo flight of 7 days 19 hours. In 1932 Amelia Earhart (Earhart, Amelia) became the first woman to complete a solo transatlantic flight. Five years later, during a global attempt, she disappeared somewhere over the Pacific. Aviator and industrialist Howard Hughes (Hughes, Howard), piloting a twin-engine Lockheed Model 14 (similar to Earhart's Lockheed 5B Vega airplane) with a four-man crew, completed a global flight in 1938 in the record time of slightly more than 3 days 19 hours. Flights like these demonstrated aviation's ability to overcome geographic barriers and shrink time-distance relationships.

 In addition to long-distance records, speed records continued to rise. For example, the Schneider Trophy races, conducted in Europe between 1913 and 1931, pitted single-engine racing planes equipped with floats against each other. With entrants carrying the colours of their respective countries, considerable international prestige and technological recognition was attached to the outcome. Designers focused on high-performance engines and streamlined fuselages. By the early 1930s, successful British racers from Supermarine, reaching about 340 miles (550 km) per hour, were contributing to the designs that led to the legendary Spitfire fighters of World War II. Behind the headlines, the collective technology and operational know-how of the record-seekers contributed to modern airline travel.

The first airlines
      One of the earliest airline organizations, a British (United Kingdom) group called Air Transport and Travel, Ltd., acquired several Airco D.H.4a VIII single-engine planes (designed by Geoffrey De Havilland (De Havilland, Sir Geoffrey)), powered by 350-horsepower Eagle V-type engines from Rolls-Royce Ltd. (Rolls-Royce PLC), and modified them to include an enclosed cramped space in the fuselage with room for two adventurous passengers. The pilot's cockpit, atop the fuselage, remained open. The company's inaugural flight occurred on Aug. 25, 1919, when the plane flew from London to Paris with its sole passenger, an enterprising newspaper reporter. The service caught on and competitors soon followed. Handley Page Transport, Ltd., made use of the manufacturing company's wartime twin-engine bombers, converting them to haul up to 14 passengers, who lounged in comfortable wicker chairs. These slow but roomy aircraft established a tradition of ornately embellished interiors and spacious surroundings—at the sacrifice of aerodynamic efficiency and high speeds—on early European airlines. Given the lack of navigational aids and the primitive instrumentation of the era, accidents invariably occurred, and passengers became used to delays caused by the notoriously foul winter weather in England. Pilots had to depend on luck and quick thinking when they were caught in unexpected atmospheric conditions. Approaching London in the fog, one British pilot suddenly realized he had drifted too close to the ground when a church steeple loomed out of the mist at his eye level. Fortunately, he noticed that express trains speeding toward London left a visible furrow in the dense fog bank, and he gratefully followed this phenomenon into the city, where he found improved conditions for landing. By 1924, with government support, independent airlines in Britain had consolidated into one entity, Imperial Airways Ltd., as a means to compete with the heavily subsidized French airlines in Europe.

 The British also used airlines to knit together elements of their far-flung empire. During the 1920s, Imperial Airways mounted operations in Africa and the Middle East. Across trackless stretches of sparsely inhabited desert, creative surveyor crews shrewdly drove cars and trucks to create a visible track for pilots to follow; in some areas, they plowed furrows in the ground. Into the late 1930s, standard equipment on these routes was the stately Handley Page H.P.42, a biplane having a wingspan of 130 feet (40 metres) and four 490-horsepower Bristol Jupiter engines. Depending on seating arrangements, 24 to 38 passengers cruised along at about 100 miles (160 km) per hour over the plane's 500-mile (800-km) range. The airline scheduled several days (including overnight stops) to travel from London to the Cape of South Africa by air, compared with some weeks by steamship. The route's clientele characteristically included well-placed colonial officials and wealthy business travelers who expected first-class service. Consequently, the H.P.42's passenger cabin featured dimensions nearly equal to the size of a Pullman railway car, and patrons appreciated plush wall-to-wall carpeting and a stand-up bar. Attentive stewards served seven-course meals.

       France also had territorial possessions in Africa as well as important business interests in Latin America. Consequently, French airlines ran along the Mediterranean coast of Spain, over to Morocco, and down the western coast of Africa as far as Dakar, Seneg. The routes took planes and crews over some of the most inhospitable areas of northwest Africa, where native tribesmen maintained strong prejudices against Europeans. Forced down in the desert, some French airmen were killed, and others were carted off in cages to be held as hostages for ransom. Antoine de Saint-Exupéry (Saint-Exupéry, Antoine de), the famed aviator and author, became successful as a field manager in Africa, donning native garb and negotiating peace with local tribal chiefs. A bewildering variety of planes from Henri Farman (Farman, Henri), Louis-Charles Bréguet (Bréguet, Louis-Charles), Pierre Latécoère (Latécoère, Pierre), and others equipped domestic and international airlines. By the 1930s, the French had also established operations in South America and begun to experiment with mail deliveries across the South Atlantic.

      In 1919, The Netherlands organized a new airline, KLM, and began service between London and Amsterdam using aircraft built by Anthony Fokker (Fokker, Anthony Herman Gerard). (KLM now proudly claims the title of the world's oldest continuously operating airline.) By 1930, KLM offered weekly service to Batavia (now Jakarta), the colonial capital of the Dutch East Indies, and competed with Imperial Airways in the Far East. Pioneering air services also sprang up in Africa, Asia, and Australia.

       Germany, prevented by the Treaty of Versailles (Versailles, Treaty of) from developing military aircraft, poured considerable effort into civilian designs. The German government also gave its blessing to the expansionist plans of Deutsche Luft Hansa (now Deutsche Lufthansa Ag (Lufthansa)), formed in 1926. Hugo Junkers (Junkers, Hugo)'s firm supplied a steady stream of low-wing single- and three-engine planes, clad in corrugated metal, that survived for decades in obscure corners of the world. Meanwhile, German airliners became regular callers throughout central and eastern Europe, with routes that extended as far east as Moscow. Other segments of Lufthansa covered Scandinavia and the Baltic; still others ran to the eastern Mediterranean and down to Baghdad. By the mid-1930s, Germany operated the largest commercial airline network in Europe.

      Out of the chaos of World War I, Imperial Russia emerged as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The communist regime soon seized on aviation as an icon of a new technical world to be shaped by the industrial proletariat. Aeroflot, the state airline, not only served propaganda purposes but subsequently emerged as an indispensable medium for rapid transportation and a visible means of knitting together the sprawling, divergent regions of the Soviet Union. Although the Soviet regime occasionally purchased western technology, its commissars emphasized the use of indigenous equipment in order to be free of invidious capitalistic influences. Consequently, Soviet engine and aircraft design bureaus, like that run by Oleg Antonov, turned out hundreds of planes for use on Aeroflot's vast internal airway system.

From airmail to airlines in the United States
      Although the American experience sometimes reflected European trends, it also demonstrated clear differences. Under the auspices of the U.S. Post Office, an airmail operation was launched in 1918 as a wartime effort to stimulate aircraft production and to generate a pool of trained pilots. Using Curtiss JN-4H (“Jenny”) trainers converted to mail planes, the early service floundered. After the war, shrewd airmail bureaucrats obtained larger American-built De Havilland DH-4 biplanes with liquid-cooled Liberty engines from surplus military stocks. Their top speed of 80 miles (130 km) per hour surpassed the 75 miles (120 km) per hour of the Jenny, allowing mail planes to beat railway delivery times over long distances. By 1924, coast-to-coast airmail service had developed, using light beacons to guide open-cockpit planes at night. Correspondence from New York now arrived on the west coast in two days instead of five days by railway. This savings in time had a distinct impact on expediting the clearance of checks, interest-bearing securities, and other business paper with a time-sensitive value in transfer between businesses and financial institutions.

      Having established a workable airmail system and a considerable clientele, the Post Office yielded to congressional pressures and, with the Contract Air Mail Act of 1925, turned over the mail service to private contractors. The following year, the Air Commerce Act established a bureau to enforce procedures for the licensing of aircraft, engines, pilots, and other personnel. The former act stimulated design and production of advanced planes to compete with rival carriers; the latter reassured insurance companies, private investors, and banks that safety standards would be enforced. With these elements in hand, American aviation rapidly progressed. Ironically, at the same time that European countries organized subsidized national flag lines and followed practices that often discouraged innovation in the design of airliners, the United States turned over civil aviation to commercial operators, where aggressive competition accelerated significant developments in aviation technology and aircraft performance.

      For one thing, manufacturers of airplane motors began a significant period of development in modern piston engines. Because liquid-cooled in-line engines offered less frontal surface, they were often favoured by military designers. With these engines, aircraft could be streamlined to improve speed but with a trade-off in complexity and weight because of the requisite coolant, coolant lines, radiator, and associated pumps. Air-cooled radial designs, in contrast, achieved relative simplicity, reliability, and comparatively light weight at the cost of more air resistance (creating drag) because of their blunt shape. In 1928, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) announced its famous cowling for radial engines. It not only smoothed airflow around the engine, substantially reducing drag, but also enhanced the cooling of the cylinders. With their dependability and ease of maintenance, radial engines became the type most favoured by designers of American air transports. The Curtiss-Wright Corporation (formed from the merger of Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company and Wright Aeronautical in 1929) produced a series of Whirlwind and Cyclone radial engines; Pratt & Whitney Aircraft launched its Wasp designs. Many of these American radial engines powered airplanes built overseas. By the end of the 1930s, innovations such as variable-pitch propellers, superchargers (to enhance high-altitude engine performance), and high-octane fuels had contributed to dramatically improved performance in both liquid-cooled and air-cooled radial engines.

      During the late 1920s and early 1930s, the U.S. Post Office instituted payment formulas that favoured aircraft large enough to carry passengers as well as mail. A rising volume of research reports from the NACA facilitated many improved aircraft designs. The result was a swift increase in larger planes with improved radial engines and a shift from biplanes to trimotor monoplane transports marketed by a subsidiary of Ford and by the European builder, Anthony Fokker (Fokker, Anthony Herman Gerard), who had set up shop in the United States.

      Largely owing to airline rivalry, American technology had already taken a major step forward with the introduction of the Boeing Company Model 247 airliner, which cruised at about 180 miles (290 km) per hour and entered service with United Airlines, Inc. (United Airlines), in 1933. With its all-metal stressed-skin construction (which used the metal skin covering itself to carry aerodynamic loads), retractable gear, two 550-horsepower Pratt & Whitney Wasp radial engines, and cowlings inspired by NACA research, the 10-passenger Model 247 seemed to be head-and-shoulders above competitive aircraft.

      Shortly before the 247 began flying, a Fokker trimotor of Transcontinental & Western Air, Inc. ( Twa), crashed in a Kansas farm field. Everybody aboard died, including the University of Notre Dame's revered football coach Knute Rockne (Rockne, Knute). Subsequent investigation of the crash raised questions about structural weakness in the plane's main wooden-wing spar. Controversy about “wooden airplanes” and criticism of the Fokker plane generally gave trimotor airliners a bad image. When TWA asked manufacturers to submit designs for a replacement, Douglas Aircraft Company (later McDonnell Douglas Corporation) responded with an all-metal twin-engine airliner. The DC-2, with an advanced NACA cowling, refined streamlining, and other improvements, mounted Wright Cyclone engines and carried 14 passengers, surpassing the Boeing 247 in every way. Significantly, leading European airlines such as KLM acquired the new Douglas transport, beginning a trend for European operators to buy American equipment. A subsequent model, the legendary DC-3, entering service in 1936, mounted 1,000-horsepower Cyclone or Wright Wasp radial engines, cruised at 185 miles (300 km) per hour, and carried 21 passengers—double the capacity of the Boeing 247. By 1939, with superior seat capacity, performance, and ancillary refinements, DC-3 transports already were carrying 90 percent of the world's airline traffic.

 While the Douglas transports dramatically improved air travel within the United States and along European routes, airline entrepreneurs kept looking for a vehicle for transoceanic travel. Many in the 1930s still believed that huge gas-filled airships (airship) would be the key. Germany built diesel-powered hydrogen-filled airships (airship), or dirigibles, such as the Hindenburg, which flew North Atlantic schedules between Europe and the United States during the summer months. American Airlines, Inc. (American Airlines), publicized special schedules that allowed DC-3 passengers to make transatlantic connections with the Hindenburg's terminus in New Jersey. This short-lived arrangement ended with the Hindenburg's tragic and fiery destruction upon its arrival from Europe to open the 1937 travel season. Plans for utilizing dirigibles as passenger liners quickly faded.

      That left flying boats. Pan American World Airways, Inc. (Pan Am), purchased a number of designs from the Russian-born American engineer Igor Sikorsky (Sikorsky, Igor). Pan Am operated them on overwater routes in the Caribbean region, often saving weeks of travel time when compared with steamship and railway connections. By the late 1930s, American manufacturers such as the Martin Company (now the Martin Marietta Corporation), Sikorsky, and Boeing were all producing very large four-engine flying boats intended for service over the Atlantic and Pacific. In 1935, using islands strung across the Pacific, Pan Am completed installation of stopover passenger facilities and its own radio communications and meteorological network. With Martin flying boats, most flights carried mail, along with occasional government or business passengers who could pay the high fares. Inaugural departures occasioned considerable fanfare. In 1939 Eleanor Roosevelt (Roosevelt, Eleanor), wife of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt (Roosevelt, Franklin D.), smashed a bottle of champagne over the bow of an imposing Yankee Clipper flying boat to launch scheduled airmail and luxury passenger service across the Atlantic to Europe. These promising, if expensive, travel innovations were soon curtailed by wartime conditions in Asia and Europe. In any case, progress in long-range land-based four-engine airliners represented advanced engineering that would have soon displaced flying boats.

      Fortuitously, the widespread boundaries of the United States contained a growing number of urban complexes with intervening distances that made airline service a desirable option. American transport designs tended to favour more speed for time-conscious passengers. In comparison, airways within the closer boundaries of western Europe favoured short-haul service, often trading speed for luxury, even on longer colonial routes where state subsidies deflected technological competition.

      Boeing's Stratoliner, a pathbreaking transport that featured a pressurized cabin, entered service in 1940. Pressurization enabled airliners to fly above adverse weather, permitting transports to maintain dependable schedules and giving passengers a more comfortable trip. Moreover, at higher altitudes, airliners actually experienced less atmospheric friction, or drag, enhancing their performance and fuel efficiency. Only a few Stratoliners entered service before World War II led Boeing to focus on building bombers.

      Meanwhile, Douglas had introduced the DC-4. Although it was unpressurized, it possessed a comparable performance to the Stratoliner and could carry more passengers. Also, the DC-4 had a tricycle landing gear (unlike the Stratoliner's conventional tail wheel), which facilitated boarding of passengers, improved the pilots' view of the runway and surrounding airport environment, and enhanced the plane's takeoff characteristics. The DC-4 achieved production status (as the C-54) during the war as the U.S. Army Air Forces' principal long-range transport. Late in the conflict, it was joined by the Lockheed L-049 Constellation (instantly identifiable by its triple vertical fins), originally designed in 1939 as a commercial airliner that blended a pressurized fuselage, tricycle landing gear, and other state-of-the-art features. Characteristics of these sophisticated civilian planes gave the United States a major advantage in postwar airliner competition.

The aeronautical infrastructure
      The impressive development of airlines and scheduled air travel rested heavily on the evolution of an aeronautical infrastructure. With roots in the late 19th century, European laboratories set the pace in theoretical aeronautical research, but the NACA, established in 1915, soon evolved as one of the world's leading aeronautical centres. The creation of specialized organizations to investigate accidents, determine the probable cause, and make recommendations to avoid repetition played a key role in the improvement of safe air travel.

      In the United States, the Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics, a private organization, spearheaded a milestone experiment in 1928 in which the pilot's responses to a combination of electronic signals and airplane instruments permitted the first successful “blind flight.” This technique represented a huge step forward for aviation. It meant that airlines could sustain schedules that required flying at night. It also meant that planes could fly in many weather conditions that had previously forced pilots to stay grounded or make unscheduled landings. Moreover, the Guggenheim Fund accelerated the science of meteorology for weather forecasting, codification of aeronautical law, and the establishment of college-level aeronautical engineering departments (as well as university research laboratories) that educated essential cadres of aeronautical engineers and scientists.

      By the end of the 1920s, most major cities in the United States had established municipal airports. During the depression decade that followed, various New Deal government construction programs improved and built additional airfields with paved all-weather runways. Under federal guidance, major airfields also acquired control towers and radio equipment as part of an air traffic control (air-traffic control) system meant to ensure safe aircraft movements within an increasingly busy air space. With a bureaucratic framework and essential flight technologies, a basic aeronautical infrastructure had emerged. The stage was set for the introduction of truly modern airliners and their indelible impact on passenger travel.

Wartime legacies
      In 1937 Japan began full-scale offensives against China; European hostilities commenced in 1939; the United States became involved in World War II in 1941. In Europe, neutral countries such as Sweden, Switzerland, Portugal, and Spain hosted international routes on a limited basis, but the vagaries of war virtually ended regularly scheduled flights until the end of the conflict in 1945. The United States supplied the majority of air transports for Allied forces. The reasons for this were quite straightforward: the DC-3 had already demonstrated its virtuosity; the superior DC-4 was entering service; and the country's prodigious production capability could satisfy most requirements. Drafted into military service, the C-47 (DC-3) and the four-engine C-54 (DC-4) became the workhorses for the U.S., Britain and its Commonwealth, and air-transport units of European governments-in-exile.

      As a harbinger of things to come, the wartime achievements of the U.S. Army Air Force Air Transport Command (ATC) constituted a major step forward. The ATC became legendary during its transport services across the towering Himalayan mountain ranges (pilots called these challenging missions “flying the hump”), carrying crucial supplies to Chinese and Allied forces in the China-Burma-India theatre. More important, the ATC operated a global network, establishing airfields, communication centres, and weather-forecasting facilities that pioneered a sustained system of air transportation on an intercontinental basis. The time required to reach destinations around the world contracted dramatically, from a journey of weeks to only a few days, or, within most combat theatres, to a few hours. Transoceanic travel became a matter of routine; at its peak of operations, ATC planes crossed the Atlantic at an average rate of one every 13 minutes.

      Anticipating the impact of postwar airlines, many knowledgeable authorities advocated worldwide protocols to normalize flying procedures and legal issues so as to promote an orderly implementation of foreign and intercontinental air routes. In 1944, during a historic meeting convened in Chicago, international representatives eventually agreed on a provisional administrative entity. By 1947, the full-fledged International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) had settled in Montreal as an adjunct of the new United Nations organization. The ICAO specified English as the universal language for pilots and air traffic controllers engaged in international operations. Additional protocols specified standardized formats for terminology, radio frequencies, navigational equipment, emergency procedures, runway markings, and airport lighting. Without these protocols, global air travel would have experienced a chaotic—and unacceptably dangerous—evolution.

Postwar airlines
      After the war, many airlines looked for an updated DC-3 replacement to use on short-to-intermediate flights. The British built 163 copies of the portly twin-engine Vickers Viking, an unpressurized transport with 24 to 27 seats (later modified to carry 34 to 38 passengers) that cruised amiably at 200 miles (320 km) per hour over European routes and those of many Commonwealth countries. However, neither British, French, Italian, nor other European manufacturers enjoyed much success against American designs. For example, Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corporation, more commonly known as Convair, built the speedy twin-engine 240/340/440 series, with trendy tricycle landing gear, which sold more than 1,000 models between 1947 and 1956, plus several hundred military versions that often trickled back into civil service. Convairs had a maximum cruising speed of 280 miles (450 km) per hour, and their pressurized cabins provided unaccustomed comfort for 40 to 50 passengers (depending on the model) in smaller airline markets around the world. Subsequent turboprop conversions kept the type in service for several decades.

      During this period, the Soviet Union (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) considered both practicality and politics for its extensive Aeroflot internal network. In the late 1930s, the country had acquired a state-of-the-art transport by signing a license agreement to build the Douglas DC-3, equipped with Soviet engines. Although numerous examples continued to serve in the postwar years, they were eventually succeeded by the Ilyushin Il-12, a trim unpressurized twin-engine transport that also featured retractable tricycle landing gear. A larger model, the Il-14, went into operation during the 1950s. Considered slow and technologically unsophisticated by modern standards, these planes played an ideological role in the Cold War by parrying Western imports. Production took place in communist-bloc countries; the Il-12 and Il-14 series numbered into the thousands, serving as military transports as well as the backbone for Aeroflot operations and civil duties in eastern Europe. They operated in China and were supplied to governments in Africa and Asia, where the Soviets wished to expand their influence.

      The Il-12 and Il-14 transports had cruising speeds of about 200 miles (320 km) per hour and could carry 27 to 32 passengers over routes of up to 300 miles (480 km). Across the length and breadth of the Soviet Union, this seemingly modest performance served quite well. Every region of the country included cities and towns that often lacked both rail services and the benefits of all-weather roads. Rivers often offered a good alternative transport route, but long Russian winters and generally challenging conditions usually meant that they were frozen solid or characterized by seasonal floods and shifting navigational channels. Consequently, the schedules of Aeroflot—with its subsidized bargain-basement fares—constituted the only reasonably reliable transport and communication links throughout the year. Large long-range transports fulfilled the immediate—and crucial—need for timely, practical travel arrangements that bound thousands of large and small population centres to each other and to national passenger networks. The sturdy Il-12 and Il-14 transports could still be seen at airports through the 1980s.

      After 1945, Douglas introduced its pressurized DC-6 to match the Lockheed Constellation on domestic and international routes. As they energetically courted sales to rival foreign airlines, American manufacturers constantly engaged in back-and-forth contests to improve their products. Since the North American market for airliners generated high-volume production, unit costs remained low, and they became highly competitive when priced against European transports. Eventually, the performance, quality, and value of postwar American designs led to their dominating presence in the airline fleets of major carriers overseas. Hoping to capture market share, Boeing utilized major components from the B-29 bomber and the C-97 cargo/tanker aircraft in building the Stratocruiser, a plane that offered unmatched luxury for air travelers in the late 1940s and early '50s. Its famously spacious cabin seated 55 passengers, and its bar/lounge, entered through a spiral staircase to the lower deck, created a sensation. Pan Am and British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) quickly introduced Stratocruisers on premier routes across the North Atlantic. However, even the Stratocruiser faded against better, faster piston-engine airliners from Douglas and Lockheed.

      But transcontinental schedules in the United States invariably included a stop for fuel en route; transatlantic flights between New York and Europe usually required refueling in Newfoundland, Iceland, or Ireland. These constraints began to evaporate in the 1950s with the Lockheed Super Constellation and the Douglas DC-7. The ultimate versions appeared in 1956–57 as the DC-7C, known as the “Seven Seas,” which was capable of nonstop transatlantic flights in either direction, and the Lockheed 1649A Starliner, which could fly nonstop on polar routes from Los Angeles to Europe. The Starliner carried 75 passengers at speeds of 350 to 400 miles (560 to 640 km) per hour. Each of its Wright turbocompound radial engines developed 3,400 horsepower. Prior to the introduction of jet transports, these stalwart aircraft transformed the dynamics of air travel and continued in service with major airlines into the late 1960s.

 Travel remained a stylish experience. Men donned coats and ties; ladies appeared in hats and dresses. Airports featured first-class restaurants; airline cabin service featured crystal stemware and quality china. Until the 1950s, airline patrons characteristically traveled on a first-class basis, and fares remained relatively high until increased patronage paved the way for decreased prices. As early as 1953, domestic airlines in the United States reported more passenger miles than railroad Pullman travel. Before the end of the year, statistics revealed that airlines had also taken the lead as the prime mover for American travelers making trips of more that 200 miles (320 km). By 1958 the majority of U.S. passengers headed for Europe chose to go by plane rather than by ocean liner. Cabin-class seats proliferated on airliners, and fares dropped accordingly. Even before the advent of jet airliners, piston-engine transports had usurped traditional railway and steamship technology as the principal mode of transport for long-distance trips. Domestically, convenient airline timetables enabled professional and collegiate sports teams to play tightly scheduled games on a nationwide basis. Airline business travel in the United States and overseas exploded. Piston-engine airliners made weekend ski trips and foreign excursions possible for thousands of middle-income individuals who could finally fit a 10-day European holiday into the time frame and budget of their annual vacation. As sociologist Max Lerner (Lerner, Max) observed, postwar airways led to the democratization of American—and global—travel.

General aviation
      Following World War I, a number of adventurous pilots began using airplanes for “utility aviation”—commercial photography, surveying, law enforcement, agricultural purposes such as seeding and crop dusting, and myriad other activities. In the United States, huge numbers of war-surplus engines and training aircraft, as well as larger planes such as the DH-4, offered a cheap and easy way to enter the flying business. Although barnstormers and acrobatic fliers all too often tarnished the image of aviation by performing foolhardy stunts in worn-out military castoffs, the phenomenon of utility aviation attracted increasing numbers of users. By the late 1920s, as the supply of war surplus aircraft and engines dried up, new companies began to offer improved engines and planes, including aircraft with enclosed cabins that could seat two to five people, bringing an end to open cockpits, helmets, goggles, and considerable engine noise.

 Throughout the 1930s, despite the Great Depression, improvements continued, and the practice of using personal aircraft to conduct business became a recognized aspect of modern commerce, especially as American industry continued its pattern of geographic diversity and scattered divisions. In order to save time and expensive personnel costs, business aviation provided the means to deliver key people to locations where airlines did not fly and road or rail travel was indirect and time-consuming. Among the most popular private aircraft models were the two-seat Piper Cub, powered by a 65-horsepower engine that enabled a cruising speed of about 85 miles (140 km) per hour; the four-seat Cessna Airmaster, powered by a 145–165-horsepower engine that enabled a cruising speed of about 160 miles (260 km) per hour; and the seven to nine passenger Beechcraft Model 18, powered by two 450-horsepower engines that enabled a cruising speed of about 220 miles (350 km) per hour. Cessna and Beechcraft still used radial-piston engines, but Piper relied on a horizontally opposed four-cylinder engine that allowed engineers to design a more streamlined engine nacelle. This type of engine became the preferred style for modern light-plane designs.

      Other developments included Igor Sikorsky (Sikorsky, Igor)'s work on practical piston-engine helicopters (helicopter). Technological precedents in the 1930s included the autogyro, which used an unpowered rotor for lift and a piston engine with propeller for forward flight, but they could not match the helicopter's ability for vertical flight and hovering. Postwar efforts to fly helicopters as short-haul passenger transports foundered, although they became invaluable in specialized missions (medevac, police patrol, traffic monitoring) and in sundry utility roles. However, compared with fixed-wing aircraft, their numbers remained small.

      After World War II, the accelerating demand for personal and utility aircraft gave rise to the term general aviation to describe all flying that did not fall into the category of military or scheduled air transport. Manufacturers such as Piper, Cessna, and Beechcraft represented an expanding “light plane industry,” although the general aviation sector included a host of modified aircraft that ranged from war surplus twin-engine Douglas A-26 bombers (rebuilt with luxury passenger cabins as fast, corporate transports) to four-engine DC-4 transports (reequipped with big internal fuselage tanks to dump retardants on forest fires). For the light plane builders, engine manufacturers such as Lycoming, Continental, and others perfected efficient horizontally opposed piston engines that produced from 65 to more than 200 horsepower; mass production made them dominant in international applications; several appeared as turbo-supercharged designs delivering more than 300 horsepower.

      Various engines powered a bewildering variety of postwar light planes, although Piper, Cessna, and Beechcraft led the market. Through the 1950s, Piper and Cessna marketed high-wing monoplanes with two to four seats, suitable for short-range personal business flying. Beechcraft introduced the stylish all-metal V-tailed Bonanza, with retractable landing gear, higher speed, and a roomy four-place cabin. Manufacturers installed a new generation of compact lightweight radio communication and navigational equipment (eventually dubbed avionics) that improved options to fly during bad weather. Eventually, all three manufacturers produced twin-engine aircraft, aimed at business travel, that could carry four to six people in more comfort at faster speeds. These designs eventually progressed into “cabin-class” corporate transports with supercharged engines, flown by a pilot and copilot, luxury accommodations for four to eight passengers in a pressurized cabin, a lavatory, and a door with a built-in stairway.

      Although aircraft produced in the United States dominated the worldwide general aviation fleet, designs from other countries also won a significant market and became essential cogs in the economies of numerous global regions. Canada, with a long history of aircraft used in wilderness flying, produced a rugged example known as the Beaver, built by De Havilland's Canadian firm. With a big radial engine of 450 horsepower (or more), the high-wing Beaver could carry six to seven people (often more), or about 1,700 pounds (770 kg) of payload (usually more). The Beaver's moderate size allowed pilots to maneuver the plane in and out of primitive abbreviated airstrips. Fitted with either floats or skis, depending on the locale and season, Beavers could reach virtually any point in Canada's wilderness of forests, lakes, and Arctic terrain. De Havilland built 1,692 of these remarkably adaptable aircraft, and they served in 63 countries, ranging from tropical climes to polar regions.

      The Soviet Union produced an aircraft of similar versatility, the Antonov AN-2. With its 1,000-horsepower radial engine, the AN-2 possessed a capacious barrel-like fuselage that could accommodate a dozen or so passengers or 4,000 pounds (1,800 kg) of cargo. Introduced in 1947, it featured a biplane configuration, and its large wing area gave it excellent flying characteristics for low-level agricultural applications—its principal intended function. But the AN-2's ability to operate from the isolated and rugged airstrips that dotted the Soviet Union made it a classic all-purpose airplane. In many remote areas such as Siberia, the AN-2 flew Aeroflot's colours as a local and short-haul passenger transport as well as cargo hauler and air ambulance. With more than 5,000 produced in Ukraine by the late 1950s, followed by approximately 11,900 in Poland during the 1960s, the AN-2 not only served throughout the Soviet bloc but also appeared in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. Within the Soviet bloc, Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia built a variety of other general aviation types, including agricultural models.

      In Great Britain, Beagle Aircraft Ltd. enjoyed some success in the 1960s. The distinctive name represented an acronym derived from British Executive and General Aviation Limited. Although several dozen airplanes entered service, they could not compete with their well-equipped counterparts from American manufacturers, whose products were backed by efficient international dealer networks. Other companies that produced planes for corporate use and small “feeder” airlines fared better. The twin-engine De Havilland (later, Hawker Siddeley) Dove arrived in 1945 as a low-wing design with retractable gear and a capacity for 11 passengers. It remained in production through the 1960s, with 554 Doves built, including 200 for military operators. The second aircraft was the Britten-Norman Islander, with headquarters located on the Isle of Wight. Designed as an up-to-date replacement for obsolete types such as the Dove, the twin-engine Islander debuted in the mid-1960s. Along with modern avionics, it featured a high wing and fixed gear, and its metal construction followed simple, easily fabricated lines with seats for nine passengers, keeping its cost to about one-third that of the Dove and similar planes. The Islander sold well, although its production sites tended to hopscotch around the world, including fabrication sites in Romania as well as the Philippines. Further modifications to the original design involved a remarkable stretch of the fuselage to accommodate the pilot and one passenger on the flight deck and 16 passengers in the main cabin and a redesigned wing and tail assembly. With its highly distinctive third piston engine mounted atop the vertical tail rudder, it became the Tri-Islander. Still flying in the 21st century, the various Islanders served effectively in many thinly populated areas having geographical constraints, such as the Caribbean, and carried thousands of passengers there and elsewhere around the world.

      The French were also busy producing light planes to compete with American products. As in Britain, dozens of types came and went during the postwar decades. Among those with staying power, factory-built aircraft designed for sale in kit form enjoyed lively sales, although many of them remained partially completed and moldering away in basements, garages, and barns. In 1966 an extensive realignment of French manufacturers led to the formation of Société de Construction d'Avions de Tourisme et d'Affaires, or Socata. The new company continued to build the proven Rallye, a trim two-passenger monoplane, but achieved notable success with its own range of larger, more powerful single-engine business planes with retractable gear. By the 1990s, the performance and reliability of the Socata Tobago and Trinidad series had made them serious competitors in the North American market.

      Through the 1960s, piston-engine airliners still played a major role in air travel, and their ubiquitous counterparts in general aviation enlivened the aeronautical scene. In 1969 commercial airlines counted about 2,500 transports; 122,500 aircraft represented the general aviation fleet. The subsequent impact of gas-turbine engines transformed both categories. Older piston-engine airliners often soldiered on as firefighting tankers, while many others shuttled passengers and cargo from remote airfields to various destinations. Myriads of piston-powered light planes continue to populate the airways everywhere. The grand epoch of piston-engine aircraft may have waned, but their story continues.

Roger E. Bilstein

The jet age

Origins
      From the very invention of flight at the beginning of the 20th century, military aircraft and engines generally led the way, and commercial aviation followed. At first this was also the case in the jet age, which began with the invention of jet engines (jet engine) under military sponsorship in the 1930s and '40s. By the late 20th century, however, commercial jet-engine technology had come to rival and sometimes even lead military technology in several areas of engine design. And, although it was not immediately evident, the invention of the jet engine had a far more significant social effect on the world through commercial aviation than through its military counterpart. Commercial jet aircraft have revolutionized world travel, opening up every corner of the world not just to the affluent but to the ordinary citizens of many countries.

First experiments
      Just as George Cayley (Cayley, Sir George, 6th Baronet) and John Stringfellow of England, Lawrence Hargrave (Hargrave, Lawrence) of Australia, Otto Lilienthal (Lilienthal, Otto) of Germany, and others had conducted experiments with flight in the years preceding Wilbur and Orville Wright (Wright, Wilbur and Orville)'s successful Wright flyer of 1903, so too were there many pioneers in the field of turbine engines before the almost simultaneous inventive successes of Frank Whittle (Whittle, Sir Frank) of England and Hans von Ohain (Ohain, Hans Joachim Pabst von) of Germany in the 1930s and '40s.

      The early experimenters included the inventor Heron of Alexandria (c. 50 AD), with his steam-powered aeolipile. In about 1500, Leonardo da Vinci created a sketch of a chimney jack that used hot gases flowing up a chimney to drive fanlike blades that in turn rotated a spit. Both the aeolipile and the spit operated on principles first explained in 1687 by Isaac Newton (Newton, Sir Isaac), whose laws of motion (Newton's laws of motion) formed the basis for modern propulsion theory. By 1872 German engineer Franz Stolze had designed the first true gas-turbine engine.

      In the United States, Sanford A. Moss, an engineer with the General Electric Co., came close to inventing a jet engine in 1918 with his turbosupercharger, which used hot gases from the engine exhaust to drive a turbine that in turn drove a centrifugal compressor to supercharge the engine. (The invention was vital to American air power during World War II.) The process was carried a step farther in 1920, when Alan A. Griffith of England developed a theory of turbine design based on gas flow past airfoils rather than through passages. Griffith subsequently worked for many years for Rolls-Royce Ltd. (Rolls-Royce PLC)

 The jet engine was unusual in that it was independently brought to fruition at about the same time in two countries that would soon again be at war. In Great Britain, a Royal Air Force officer, Frank Whittle (Whittle, Sir Frank), invented the gas-turbine engine that would power the first British jet, the Gloster E.28/39, which made its first flight on May 15, 1941. In Germany, Hans Joachim Pabst von Ohain (Ohain, Hans Joachim Pabst von) worked on the problem of gas-turbine engines without any knowledge of Whittle's efforts. Von Ohain found backing from the aviation industrialist Ernst Heinkel (Heinkel, Ernst Heinrich), who sought to have an engine-manufacturing capability to complement his aircraft company. Work proceeded swiftly, and on Aug. 27, 1939, von Ohain's HeS.3B engine enabled Erich Warsitz to make the world's first successful turbojet-powered flight in history in the Heinkel He 178.

      Notable American experimenters in jet-aviation technology include Nathan Price of Lockheed Corporation (Lockheed Martin Corporation), who designed and built the L-1000, and Vladimir Pavlecki and Art Phelan at Northrop Aircraft, Inc. (Northrop Grumman Corporation)

      Britain's initial setbacks during World War II spurred interest in developing the jet engine, while Germany's successes led its leaders to a decision to defer all technical developments in weaponry that could not be realized within a year. Despite this, the Junkers Motorenwerke GmbH had assigned Anselm Franz to develop a jet engine, beginning in 1940. Junkers put his engine into production, and it powered the first operational jet fighter in history, the German Messerschmitt Me 262.

      Britain and the United States also introduced jet fighters, with the British Gloster Meteor making its first flight on March 5, 1943. The first American jet fighter, the Bell P-59A, lacked the performance necessary for combat, so the first operational U.S. jet fighter was the Lockheed P-80A, which arrived too late for combat in World War II. It would prove to be invaluable during the Korean War just five years later, though. The Soviet Union also conducted experiments with jet engines, including the installation of ramjets (ramjet), but these were on a small scale.

The jet enters the civilian world
Technical advantages and challenges
      Whittle, von Ohain, and others met resistance to their ideas because conventional thinkers believed that the jet engine would produce too little power and consume too much fuel to be economically practical. It was not generally recognized that at higher altitudes the jet would produce more power with acceptable fuel efficiency. Understandably, even the most dedicated engine experts did not anticipate the rapid pace at which jet-engine performance would be improved.

      It happened that the jet engine entered the propulsion scene at a time when conventional reciprocating engines and propellers were reaching their physical limits. Propellers were already encountering supersonic tip-speeds that destroyed their efficiency, and engines had grown so complex that additional horsepower in the 3,000–4,000 range depended on a large number of cylinders and complex supercharging that generated problems in operation and maintenance.

      With their continuous rotary motion, jet engines were mechanically simpler and smoother than reciprocating pistons with their rough pounding. Jet engines developed rapidly and by 1950 had reached levels of power that were impossible with piston engines. Reciprocating engines for aircraft had reached a practical limit with the 3,500-horsepower, 28-cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-4360 engine, while some modern jet engines, such as the General Electric GE90-115, can produce as much as 115,000 pounds of thrust. The R-4360 engines powered the last generation of piston-powered bombers—namely, the Boeing B-50, which was in frontline service for only a few years as a bomber before being relegated to a (jet-assisted) tanker role. In contrast, the Boeing 777, which uses the GE90-115 engine, first flew in 2003 and will likely remain in service for two or more decades. Thrust and horsepower are difficult to equate, but one pound of thrust is equivalent to one horsepower at 375 miles (600 km) per hour.

      It was not immediately obvious that the jet engine required major advances in airframe design and support facilities. First, airframes needed to be much larger to carry the additional passengers required to make jet aircraft economically sound. They would also have to be much stronger to accommodate the pressurized fuselage and the many transitions between low altitudes for takeoffs and landings and high altitudes for cruising. Another structural change was to sweep the wings back to reduce the drag increase associated with approaching supersonic flight. This was a possibility first elucidated by German engineer Adolph Buseman in 1935 and a few years later independently by Robert T. Jones at the U.S. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). In addition, aircraft and ground instrumentation became far more sophisticated. Ground handling equipment to service the aircraft also was vastly improved, as was airport infrastructure for refueling, loading, and unloading. Navigation and en-route surveillance were also much improved to handle the initial growth of jet traffic but subsequently had to be overhauled again when the number of flights grew to the point of saturating air traffic control (air-traffic control) capability.

      It was recognized almost from the start that the higher construction cost of the jet airliner would need to be amortized through intensive use. What was not initially known, though, was the greater longevity that jet airliners would have compared with their piston-engine predecessors. The improvement in engine operation has been the most spectacular, with jet engines now having intervals between overhauls that run into tens of thousands of hours and with corrosion and molecular decay rather than wear being the biggest maintenance problem.

      While advances in jet aviation have been phenomenal, the industry faces greater risks than ever before. The growth in performance has been matched by a growth in cost and a diminution of the number of aircraft required by civil and military customers. Commercial airliners are more cost effective than ever before and last longer. And development of new aircraft costs billions of dollars, requiring a continued growth in passenger traffic to keep production levels steady or climbing.

The airlines reequip
      In Britain (United Kingdom), the production of advanced commercial aircraft had been abandoned during the war, while the greater capacity and efficiency of American industry allowed the creation of the long-distance piston-engine Douglas C-54 (DC-4) and Lockheed C-69 Constellation aircraft. A committee headed by aviation pioneer and former member of Parliament John Moore-Brabazon was established in 1943 to discuss postwar prospects of reviving the British air-transport industry, and among the suggestions was a specification for a transatlantic mailplane. De Havilland began design studies that led to the first flight of the D.H. 106 Comet jet airliner on July 27, 1949. Britain had stolen a march on the world, for the 36-seat Comet could fly at 500 miles (800 km) per hour for up to 1,500 miles (2,400 km).

      Boeing, Douglas, and Lockheed were stunned; though the Comet was considered too small and too short-ranged for American airline routes, they could offer no jet competitor. Britain's great lead went down in flames, however, when several Comets crashed, which led to its withdrawal from service in 1954. The later crashes were ultimately attributed to structural failure of the pressure cabin because of metal fatigue.

      Boeing (Boeing Company) made a great advance with its revolutionary B-47 bomber, first flown on Dec. 17, 1947. The six-engine, swept-wing aircraft was purchased in large quantities (2,032) by the U.S. Air Force. This gave Boeing the engineering and financial basis to create the Model 367-80, a prototype for both the later 707 passenger plane and the KC-135 tanker. Although a tremendous gamble for Boeing, which for many years had been almost entirely a military supplier, the 707 was a commercial success after entering service in 1958. Douglas responded with its similar looking DC-8. Both aircraft were larger (some configurations could carry more than 200 passengers) and faster (more than 600 miles [965 km] per hour) than the modified Comet 4 that began service on the New York to London route on Oct. 4, 1958.

      Boeing and Douglas quickly dominated the market, making it difficult for a later entry, the CV-880, from Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corporation, more commonly known as Convair, to gain a foothold. Convair had stressed speed rather than passenger capacity, but the 880 and the improved 990 that followed it were commercial disasters that almost forced the company out of business.

      Britain tried desperately to regain its footing in the airliner market but found that its Commonwealth route structures required specialized aircraft designs that were not competitive with the Boeing and Douglas products in the world market. The British had their greatest success with turboprop airliners, in which the propulsive power of the jet engines was transferred to a propeller through a gear box. The most prominent of these was the Vickers Viscount, which was built in larger numbers (444) than any other British airliner. The Viscount could carry from 40 to 65 passengers at a cruising speed of 355 to 365 miles (570 to 590 km) per hour, depending on configuration. It was employed most extensively by British European Airways. Other British jet airliners, such as the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) One-Eleven, the Vickers VC-10, and the Hawker Siddeley Aviation Trident, were produced in relatively small numbers and were not outstanding commercial successes because of the superb production and marketing of equivalent U.S. airliners.

      France succeeded with its first effort at a jet airliner, creating the Sud-Est (later Aérospatiale) SE 210 Caravelle, a medium-range turbojet intended primarily for the continental European market. First flown on May 27, 1955, the Caravelle achieved sales of 282 aircraft, and a turbofan-powered variant was used for domestic routes by airlines in the United States—a marketing coup at the time. The Caravelle was the world's first airliner to have rear-mounted engines, a design feature that was adopted for some uses by all other major manufacturers.

      Aérospatiale joined with British Aerospace to create a technological masterpiece, the beautiful supersonic transport (SST) Concorde airliner, the first example of which flew on March 2, 1969. The development costs of the Concorde were so great that they could never be recovered from operations, so, for reasons of national prestige, they were simply written off. The Concorde was flown as a prestige flagship airliner on the transatlantic routes for both Air France and British Airways PLC, but its noise and operating expense limited its service. Only 14 went into service, with the last of them being retired in 2003; the Concorde proved a technical miracle but an economic disaster.

      Jet airliners were a genuine requirement for the Soviet Union because of its vast expanse of territory, which included 10 time zones. The Tupolev Tu-104 prototype made its first flight on June 17, 1955, only 11 months after the first flight of the Boeing 367–80 but 30 months before the first flight of a production 707. Tupolev had leaped ahead by using the components of the Tu-16 bomber, adding only a new 55-seat pressurized fuselage. The Tu-104 served well and reliably for many years but would not have been considered for use by Western airlines because of its high operating costs. It began a dynasty of Tupolev airliners that continues to this day, including the first supersonic passenger airliner, the Tu-144 (Tupolev Tu-144). The prototype Soviet SST made its first flight on Dec. 31, 1968, and was so similar in appearance and performance to the more highly publicized Anglo-French Concorde that it was called the “Concordski.” The Tu-144 was not successful and was withdrawn from service in June 1978 after several fatal accidents, which included one at its international debut at the 1973 Paris Air Show.

      Tupolev's efforts were complemented by those of Ilyushin, which has produced a long series of successful turboprop and jet airliners that in recent years have benefited by access to Western engines and electronics technology. After the collapse of the Soviet Union on Dec. 25, 1991, the great Soviet airline Aeroflot was broken up, and former satellite countries began to look to the West for airliners that were more economical to operate. The result was an immense reduction in both development and production of Russian airliners and an utter incapability to compete with Western airliner builders.

Progress in engines and airframes

Airliners
 Two stages in the jetliners development marked the 1960s. The first was the adoption of the turbofan engine. The turbofan gains economy by having much of its thrust pass around the engine core rather than through it. The second stage was marked by the introduction of the wide-bodied, 400-seat Boeing (Boeing Company) 747 in 1969. This large, swift, and long-ranged aircraft created a transportation revolution. Whereas air travel had once been confined to the affluent, it now became a mass-market conveyance as airline ticket prices fell and airlines became more sophisticated in their pricing practices. As the total market grew, smaller jet and turboprop airliners were developed for shorter routes.

      Boeing had already demonstrated its mastery of the technique of creating aircraft to meet new demands by creating first the three-engine T-tailed 727 in 1963, followed by a succession of aircraft (the 737 [1967], 757 [1982], 767 [1981], 777 [2003], and 787 [2007]) that were tailored to the needs of specific airlines and routes. (The 737, with more than 6,000 sales, is the most produced jet transport in history.) Each of these models was modified and improved over time to take advantage of technical developments, and, as a result, Boeing had an excellent portfolio of aircraft to offer airline companies.

      During the period of Boeing's expansion, Douglas ran into management problems, and while its DC-9 was a spectacular success, it could not match Boeing's proliferation of designs. Douglas was acquired by McDonnell Aircraft Corporation in 1967, forming McDonnell Douglas Corporation, and the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 was created to meet an estimated market requirement for about 750 wide-bodied aircraft. Lockheed sought to enter the same market with its technologically more advanced L-1011 TriStar. McDonnell Douglas sold 446 DC-10s, while Lockheed sold 250 TriStars, with both companies losing massive amounts of money. McDonnell Douglas belatedly struggled on with the MD-11, an improved DC-10, while continuing the DC-9 as the MD-80 and MD-90 series. When Boeing acquired the firm in 1997, it applied the designation 717 to one version of the twin-engine jet.

 In spite of the intense nature of the competition to build jet airliners, a new entrant appeared in the early 1970s following intense industrial and political negotiations. Airbus Industrie was co-owned by French, German, British, Spanish, Dutch, and Belgium companies and subcontracted many parts to still other countries. Established in December 1970 to build the Airbus A300 wide-bodied twin, the company was discounted at first as having little chance to compete. However, its aircraft were widely accepted, and a series of designs followed that established a family of aircraft that matched Boeing's offerings—and, with the introduction of the A380 in 2005, threatened to exceed them. The Airbus family marched steadily forward in size, number, and utility until it consisted of no fewer than 14 different series of aircraft. Complaints from the United States that Airbus was being subsidized by the various European governments was countered by the charge that American manufacturers were in effect subsidized by their sale of aircraft to the U.S. military and by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) research.

      As the jet engine matured, it moved successively to other segments of the airline market and then, as turboshafts and turboprops, respectively, into helicopters (helicopter) and business aircraft. The success of the Viscount turboprop airliner was emulated by a host of others. Relatively small airlines, using these planes for routes connecting smaller cities, became associated with the larger carriers and often adopted the same name. In the late 1990s, smaller jets with room for 50 to 90 passengers began to replace the turboprops. This trend was part of a dramatic makeover in the profile and operations of airlines, especially in North America.

Business aircraft
 Among business aircraft, smaller jet engines, with good fuel-consumption characteristics, became available to power executive jets. The first to appear included the Lockheed JetStar of 1957, which was soon followed by the North American Sabreliner. These aircraft were eclipsed by the appearance in 1963 of the Learjet 23. This five-to-seven-passenger jet had a top speed of about 560 miles (900 km) per hour and a range of 1,830 miles (2,945 km). Favoured by celebrities, Learjet became almost a generic term for the many executive jets that followed. Powered by turbofans, these included excellent aircraft from France (Dassault), Israel (IAI), and the United Kingdom (De Havilland and Hawker Siddeley.)

  Businesses had used aircraft since the early 1920s, and a substantial fleet of twin piston-engine executive aircraft existed when the executive jets arrived. Although companies were loath to admit it, most executive jets were initially purchased as a perquisite of the top management, usually for a chief executive officer who liked to fly and found the executive jet's performance comparable to that of airliners. In time, however, it was realized that executive aircraft were tools in exactly the same way that factory machines or computers were tools, and they were subsequently purchased in far larger numbers on that basis. The top executive jets, including the Boeing Business Jet (a variation of the 737), the Bombardier (Bombardier Inc.) Global Express, the Dassault (Dassault Industries) Falcon 900, and the Gulfstream 500/550, featured intercontinental range and high subsonic speeds.

avionics, passenger support, and safety
      During the jet age, avionics, a coined term meaning “aviation electronics,” has seen a rapid growth in every aspect, including navigation, instrumentation, communication, safety, and landing assistance.

      The advent of the cathode-ray oscilloscope and its application to aircraft spurred the avionics revolution, which had begun with relatively primitive radios. While the initial uses of the cathode-ray display were for military purposes (detecting incoming enemy aircraft), it was soon applied to in-flight navigation, controlling aircraft in terminal areas, and landing operations. The ground-controlled approach (GCA), in which a ground observer monitors the course and descent angle of an aircraft via radar, enables pilots to land under extremely adverse weather conditions. GCA was used extensively by the U.S. military during the 1948 Berlin blockade and airlift and was approved for U.S. civil airline use in 1949. Another avionics system, the instrument landing system (ILS), uses onboard instruments to interpret signals sent from ground stations. A rather primitive ILS was introduced in 1929 but became truly useful only after 1945. As radar became more powerful and available in greater quantity, it became useful for monitoring aircraft as they progressed along their routes.

      In communications, radios operating in very high frequency ( VHF) reappeared after World War II and became standard for civil and commercial aircraft, while military aircraft adopted ultrahigh frequency ( UHF). The introduction of satellite (Earth satellite) communication in the early 1960s, while initially expensive, finally offered the potential to achieve real-time surveillance of every airborne aircraft anywhere in the world. Meanwhile, the use of satellites for navigation leaped forward in the mid-1990s, in part because its adoption was less expensive than satellite communications and in part because of its pinpoint accuracy. Global Positioning System ( GPS) satellites can be expected to eventually be used for terminal control and landing approaches.

      The cathode-ray display also found its way into the cockpit, where it replaced standard analog information presentations and made far more information instantly available to pilots. When integrated into automatic pilots, these displays make cockpit resource management a key element of flying safety. There were almost-continuous experiments with the cathode-ray tube from the mid-1970s, but it was supplanted by the computer-based electronic display in the 1980s. The first true “glass cockpit” was found in the Boeing 767 (1981). Since that time, electronic displays have progressed throughout aviation and may now be found even in light aircraft. The next generation in cockpit management is the Multifunction Electronic Display Subsystem (MEDS), which allows pilots to call up desired information on a liquid crystal display (LCD). Besides being more easily understood by a computer-literate generation of pilots, MEDS is less expensive to maintain and more easily updated than conventional instrumentation.

 In the area of passenger support, the jet age excelled in the ticketing process and in the creation of large terminals, but in the view of many experienced travelers it regressed in the area of onboard comfort. Seating became more restricted, and the rapid retrieval of baggage seemed to remain an unsolvable problem. To some extent, onboard electronics compensated for these inconveniences by providing amenities such as telephones, television, and the Internet. Most travelers, however, would settle for a little more hip and leg room. Safety is one area in which there has been continual progress, with military and commercial aviation having vastly improved their safety records by any measure.

turbine-powered helicopters (helicopter)
      As important as the jet engine was to other sectors of aviation, nowhere was it more eagerly received than in the helicopter industry. The advent of jet engines provided helicopters with more power and flexibility, for they allowed operations at higher altitudes and temperatures. The relative ease with which earlier piston-engine models could be retrofitted also contributed to the proliferation of turbine engines.

      The first jet (but not turbine) helicopter was the German Doblhoff WNF 342, which flew in 1943 using three hollow rotors through which a mixture of fuel and air was compressed to burn through nozzles at the blade tips for vertical takeoffs and landings. A conventional piston engine was used for horizontal flight. In 1947 the McDonnell “Little Henry” used a similar principle, using ramjets mounted at each end of the two-blade rotor for power. A Garrett Air Research gas turbine, normally used for auxiliary power units, supplied the motive air. The military was the primary market for early turbine-powered, or turboshaft, helicopters, with the Kaman K-600 and its Avco Lycoming T53-L-1B engine sold as the H-43B to the U.S. Air Force. In a similar way, the French armed services placed mass-production orders for the very successful Sud Est S.E. 313B Alouette II.

 Real commercial success did not come to turboshaft helicopters until after Bell's 1955 experiments with their 47H led to the three-passenger 47J Ranger. However, the helicopter that led the turbine revolution was the Bell Model 204. This led to the Model 205, the foundation of the famous UH-1 Huey and many other Bell designs. It was followed in the commercial field by the Bell Model 206 Jet Ranger, which first flew on Jan. 10, 1966. The Jet Ranger series and the Alouette II established helicopter dynasties for their companies and inspired manufacturers all over the world to substitute turboshaft engines for piston engines in older designs while feverishly creating new designs tailored specifically to the turbine engine. The Russian-born American engineer Igor Sikorsky (Sikorsky, Igor) profited from the adoption of helicopters, branching out with a series of ever more powerful designs. From the seminal VS-300 down through the immortal HH-3E (“Jolly Green Giant”) rescue plane to the UH-60 Black Hawks that proved so important in special forces operations, Sikorsky helicopters remained at the forefront of rotary-wing flight.

      The Soviet Union used helicopters extensively for military and civil use and the availability of turbine engines increased this use. With their usual penchant for large-scale vehicles, the Soviet Union developed many powerful helicopters, including the Mil Mi-26, which could carry payloads as great as 20,000 kg (44,000 pounds) and was the largest production helicopter in the world.

      The power and the reliability of the turbine engine endowed the helicopter with the capability and flexibility to handle a host of missions, including police work, medical evacuation, forestry, air and sea rescue, agricultural spraying, and construction.

Walter James Boyne

Additional Reading

Invention of the airplane
Tom D. Crouch, A Dream of Wings: Americans and the Airplane, 1875–1905 (1981, reissued 2002), is a study of the rise of a community of American engineers and scientists who laid the foundation for the invention of the airplane. Charles Harvard Gibbs-Smith, The Rebirth of European Aviation, 1902–1908 (1974), describes the impact of the Wright brothers on European flight experimenters. Alfred Gollin, The Impact of Air Power on the British People and Their Government, 1909–1914 (1989), details the policy implications of the invention of the airplane for one European nation. Richard P. Hallion, Taking Flight: Inventing the Aerial Age from Antiquity to the First World War (2003), provides a good survey of the early history of flight. Henry Serrano Villard, Contact! (1968, reissued 2002), serves as a popular overview of the first decade of the airplane. Robert Wohl, A Passion for Wings: Aviation and the Western Imagination, 1908–1918 (1994, reissued 1996), is a beautifully illustrated study of the social and cultural impact of early flight.

Pistons in the air
R.E.G. Davies, The World's Airlines (1964; also published as A History of the World's Airlines, 1964, reprinted 1983), is an indispensable encyclopaedic reference; the author is quite simply the best authority on airlines in the world. Roger E. Bilstein, Flight in America: From the Wrights to the Astronauts, 3rd ed. (2001), includes social and cultural commentary on airline trends as well as developments in general aviation.Ronald Miller and David Sawers, The Technical Development of Modern Aviation (1968), gives special attention to technological advances and their impact on airline economics and operations.Oliver E. Allen et al., The Airline Builders (1981), is a superbly illustrated book and a colourful narrative about international activities during the 1920s and '30s. Terry Gwynn-Jones, Farther and Faster: Aviation's Adventuring Years, 1909–1939 (1991), is an engrossing chronicle of record flights and personalities.Frank Joseph Rowe and Craig Miner, Borne on the South Wind: A Century of Aviation in Kansas (1994), is focused on Beech and Cessna but reflects key trends and technological changes in the light plane and general aviation business. Kenneth Munson, Private Aircraft: Business and General Purpose Since 1946 (1967), is a carefully illustrated compact reference with numerous and fascinating details about general aviation planes.

The jet age
Walter J. Boyne and Donald S. Lopez (eds.), The Jet Age: Forty Years of Jet Aviation (1979), contains excellent articles by the principal engineers of the time. Bill Gunston, World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines, 4th ed. (1998), is an indispensable reference that charts the progress of all the main engine companies. GE Aircraft Engines, Eight Decades of Progress: A Heritage of Aircraft Turbine Technology (1990), is an interesting review of jet history from a principal producer. Walter J. Boyne, Clash of Wings (1994), is a comprehensive overview of World War II aerial operations that includes the introduction of jet aircraft. John D. Anderson, Jr., A History of Aerodynamics and Its Impact on Flying Machines (1997), is a comprehensive, if demanding, history of aerodynamics. Bill Gunston, Avionics (1990), contains an in-depth history of the developments of modern avionics. Donald M. Patillo, Pushing the Envelope (1998), is an excellent review of the American aircraft industry, with insightful statistics.

* * *


Universalium. 2010.

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