dairy product

Introduction

       milk and any of the foods made from milk, including butter, cheese, ice cream, yogurt, and condensed and dried milk.

      Milk has been used by humans since the beginning of recorded time to provide both fresh and storable nutritious foods. In some countries almost half the milk produced is consumed as fresh pasteurized whole, low-fat, or skim milk. However, most milk is manufactured into more stable dairy products of worldwide commerce, such as butter, cheese, dried milks, ice cream, and condensed milk.

       cow milk (bovine species) is by far the principal type used throughout the world. Other animals utilized for their milk production include buffalo (in India, China, Egypt, and the Philippines), goats (in the Mediterranean countries), reindeer (in northern Europe), and sheep (in southern Europe). This section focuses on the processing of cow milk and milk products unless otherwise noted. In general, the processing technology described for cow milk can be successfully applied to milk obtained from other species.

      In the early 1800s the average dairy cow produced less than 1,500 litres of milk annually. With advances in animal nutrition and selective breeding, one cow now produces an average of 6,500 litres of milk a year, with some cows producing up to 10,000 litres. The Holstein-Friesian cow produces the greatest volume, but other breeds such as Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, and Jersey, while producing less milk, are known for supplying milk that contains higher fat, protein, and total solids.

Properties of milk

Nutrient composition

      Although milk is a liquid and most often considered a drink, it contains between 12 and 13 percent total solids and perhaps should be regarded as a food. In contrast, many “solid” foods, such as tomatoes, carrots, and lettuce, contain as little as 6 percent solids.

      Many factors influence the composition of milk, including breed, genetic constitution of the individual cow, age of the cow, stage of lactation, interval between milkings, and certain disease conditions. Since the last milk drawn at each milking is richest in fat, the completeness of milking also influences a sample. In general, the type of feed only slightly affects the composition of milk, but feed of poor quality or insufficient quantity causes both a low yield and a low percentage of total solids. Current feeding programs utilize computer technology to achieve the greatest efficiency from each animal.

      The composition of milk varies among mammals (mammal), primarily to meet growth rates of the individual species. The proteins contained within the mother's milk are the major components contributing to the growth rate of the young animals. Human milk is relatively low in both proteins and minerals compared with that of cows and goats (goat).

      Goat milk has about the same nutrient composition as cow milk, but it differs in several characteristics. Goat milk is completely white in colour because all the beta-carotene (ingested from feed) is converted to vitamin A. The fat globules are smaller and therefore remain suspended, so the cream does not rise and mechanical homogenization is unnecessary. Goat milk curd forms into small, light flakes and is more easily digested, much like the curd formed from human milk. It is often prescribed for persons who are allergic to the proteins in cow milk and for some patients afflicted with stomach ulcers.

       sheep milk is rich in nutrients, having 18 percent total solids (5.8 percent protein and 6.5 percent fat). Reindeer milk has the highest level of nutrients, with 36.7 percent total solids (10.3 percent protein and 22 percent fat). These high-fat, high-protein milks are excellent ingredients for cheese and other manufactured dairy products.

       Nutrient composition of dairy productsThe major components of milk are water, fat, protein, carbohydrate (lactose), and minerals (ash). However, there are numerous other highly important micronutrients such as vitamins, essential amino acids, and trace minerals. Indeed, more than 250 chemical compounds have been identified in milk. The Table (Nutrient composition of dairy products) shows the composition of fresh fluid milk and other dairy products.

Fat

      The fat in milk is secreted by specialized cells in the mammary glands (mammary gland) of mammals. It is released as tiny fat globules or droplets, which are stabilized by a phospholipid and protein coat derived from the plasma membrane of the secreting cell. Milk fat is composed mainly of triglycerides (triglyceride)—three fatty acid chains attached to a single molecule of glycerol. It contains 65 percent saturated, 32 percent monounsaturated, and 3 percent polyunsaturated fatty acids. The fat droplets carry most of the cholesterol and vitamin A. Therefore, skim milk, which has more than 99.5 percent of the milk fat removed, is significantly lower in cholesterol than whole milk (2 milligrams per 100 grams of milk, compared with 14 milligrams for whole milk) and must be fortified with vitamin A.

protein

      Milk contains a number of different types of proteins, depending on what is required for sustaining the young of the particular species. These proteins increase the nutritional value of milk and other dairy products and provide certain characteristics utilized for many of the processing methods. A major milk protein is casein, which actually exists as a multisubunit protein complex dispersed throughout the fluid phase of milk. Under certain conditions the casein complexes are disrupted, causing curdling of the milk. Curdling results in the separation of milk proteins into two distinct phases, a solid phase (the curds) and a liquid phase (the whey).

lactose

      Lactose is the principal carbohydrate found in milk. It is a disaccharide composed of one molecule each of the monosaccharides (simple sugars) glucose and galactose. Lactose is an important food source for several types of fermenting bacteria. The bacteria convert the lactose into lactic acid, and this process is the basis for several types of dairy products.

      In the diet lactose is broken down into its component glucose and galactose subunits by the enzyme lactase. The glucose and galactose can then be absorbed from the digestive tract for use by the body. Individuals deficient in lactase cannot metabolize lactose, a condition called lactose intolerance. The unmetabolized lactose cannot be absorbed from the digestive tract and therefore builds up, leading to intestinal distress.

Vitamins (vitamin) and minerals

      Milk is a good source of many vitamins. However, its vitamin C (ascorbic acid) content is easily destroyed by heating during pasteurization. vitamin D is formed naturally in milk fat by ultraviolet irradiation but not in sufficient quantities to meet human nutritional needs. Beverage milk is commonly fortified with the fat-soluble vitamins A (vitamin A) and D. In the United States the fortification of skim milk and low-fat milk with vitamin (vitamin B complex) A (in water-soluble emulsified preparations) is required by law.

      Milk also provides many of the B vitamins. It is an excellent source of riboflavin (B₂) and provides lesser amounts of thiamine (B₁) and niacin. Other B vitamins found in trace amounts are pantothenic acid, folic acid, biotin, pyridoxine (B₆), and vitamin B₁₂.

      Milk is also rich in minerals (mineral) and is an excellent source of calcium and phosphorus. It also contains trace amounts of potassium, chloride, sodium, magnesium, sulfur, copper, iodine, and iron. A lack of adequate iron is said to keep milk from being a complete food.

Physical and biochemical properties

      Milk contains many natural enzymes (enzyme), and other enzymes are produced in milk as a result of bacterial growth. Enzymes are biological catalysts capable of producing chemical changes in organic substances. Enzyme action in milk systems is extremely important for its effect on the flavour and body of different milk products. Lipases (lipase) (fat-splitting enzymes), oxidases, proteases (proteolytic enzyme) (protein-splitting enzymes), and amylases (amylase) (starch-splitting enzymes) are among the more important enzymes that occur naturally in milk. These classes of enzymes are also produced in milk by microbiological action. In addition, the proteolytic enzyme (i.e., protease) rennin, produced in calves' stomachs to coagulate milk protein and aid in nutrient absorption, is used to coagulate milk for manufacturing cheese.

      The coagulation of milk is an irreversible change of its protein from a soluble or dispersed state to an agglomerated or precipitated condition. Its appearance may be associated with spoilage, but coagulation is a necessary step in many processing procedures. Milk may be coagulated by rennin or other enzymes, usually in conjunction with heat. Left unrefrigerated, milk may naturally sour or coagulate by the action of lactic acid, which is produced by lactose-fermenting bacteria. This principle is utilized in the manufacture of cottage cheese. When milk is pasteurized and continuously refrigerated for two or three weeks, it may eventually coagulate or spoil owing to the action of psychrophilic or proteolytic organisms that are normally present or result from postpasteurization contamination.

      Milk fat (butterfat) is present in milk as an emulsion in a water phase. Finely dispersed fat globules in this emulsion are stabilized by a milk protein membrane, which permits the fat to clump and rise. The rising action is called creaming and is expected in all unhomogenized milk. In the United States, when paper cartons supplanted glass bottles, consumers stopped the practice of skimming cream from the top. Processors then introduced homogenization, a method of preventing gravity separation by forcing milk through very small openings under pressure, thus reducing fat globules to one-tenth their original size. Homogenization is practiced in many dairy processes in order to improve the physical properties of products (see Fresh fluid milk: Processing (dairy product)).

      Milk and other dairy products are very susceptible to developing off-flavours (flavour). Some flavours, given such names as “feed,” “barny,” or “unclean,” are absorbed from the food ingested by the cow and from the odours in its surroundings. Others develop through microbial action due to growth of bacteria in large numbers. Chemical changes can also take place through enzyme action, contact with metals (such as copper), or exposure to sunlight or strong fluorescent light. Quality-control directors are constantly striving to avoid off-flavours in milk and other dairy foods.

Fresh fluid milk

      Fresh fluid milk requires the highest-quality raw milk and is generally designated as Grade “A.” This grade requires a higher level of sanitation and inspection on the farm than is necessary for “manufacturing grade” milk.

Quality concerns

      Raw milk is a potentially dangerous food that must be processed and protected to assure its safety for humans. While most bovine diseases, such as brucellosis and tuberculosis, have been eliminated, many potential human pathogens inhabit the dairy farm environment. Therefore, it is essential that all milk be either pasteurized or (in the case of cheese) held for at least 60 days if made from raw milk. While milk from healthy cows is often totally bacteria-free, that condition quickly changes when milk is exposed to the farm environment.

      Milk received at the processing plant is tested before being unloaded from either farm-based tank trucks or over-the-road tankers. The milk is checked for odour, appearance, proper temperature, acidity, bacteria, and the presence of drug residues. These tests take no longer than 10 to 15 minutes. If the tank load passes these tests, the milk is pumped into the plant's refrigerated storage tanks. The milk is then stored for the shortest possible time.

Processing

 Essential steps in the processing of fluid milk into various dairy products are shown in Figure 1—>.

pasteurization

      Pasteurization is most important in all dairy processing. It is the biological safeguard which ensures that all potential pathogens are destroyed. Extensive studies have determined that heating milk to 63° C (145° F) for 30 minutes or 72° C (161° F) for 15 seconds kills the most resistant harmful bacteria. In actual practice these temperatures and times are exceeded, thereby not only ensuring safety but also extending shelf life.

      Most milk today is pasteurized by the continuous high-temperature short-time (HTST) method (72° C or 161° F for 15 seconds or above). The HTST method is conducted in a series of stainless steel plates and tubes, with the hot pasteurized milk on one side of the plate being cooled by the incoming raw milk on the other side. (See .) This “regeneration” can be more than 90 percent efficient and greatly reduces the cost of heating and cooling. There are many fail-safe controls on an approved pasteurizer system to ensure that all milk is completely heated for the full time and temperature requirement. If the monitoring instruments detect that something is wrong, an automatic flow diversion valve will prevent the milk from moving on to the next processing stage. Higher temperatures and sometimes longer holding times are required for the pasteurization of milk or cream with a high fat or sugar content.

      Pasteurized milk is not sterile and is expected to contain small numbers of harmless bacteria. Therefore, the milk must be immediately cooled to below 4.4° C (40° F) and protected from any outside contamination. The shelf life for high-quality pasteurized milk is about 14 days when properly refrigerated.

      Extended shelf life can be achieved through ultrapasteurization. In this case, milk is heated to 138° C (280° F) for two seconds and aseptically placed in sterile conventional milk containers. Ultrapasteurized milk and cream must be refrigerated and will last at least 45 days. This process does minimal damage to the flavour and extends the shelf life of slow-selling products such as cream, eggnog, and lactose-reduced milks.

      Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) pasteurization is the same heating process as ultrapasteurization (138° C or 280° F for two seconds), but the milk then goes into a more substantial container—either a sterile five-layer laminated “box” or a metal can. This milk can be stored without refrigeration and has a shelf life of six months to a year. Products handled in this manner do not taste as fresh, but they are useful as an emergency supply or when refrigeration is not available.

Separation (cream separator)

      Most modern plants use a separator to control the fat content of various products. A separator is a high-speed centrifuge that acts on the principle that cream or butterfat is lighter than other components in milk. (The specific gravity of skim milk is 1.0358, specific gravity of heavy cream 1.0083.) The heart of the separator is an airtight bowl with funnellike stainless steel disks. The bowl is spun at a high speed (about 6,000 revolutions per minute), producing centrifugal forces of 4,000 to 5,000 times the force of gravity. Centrifugation causes the skim, which is denser than cream, to collect at the outer wall of the bowl. The lighter part (cream) is forced to the centre and piped off for appropriate use.

      An additional benefit of the separator is that it also acts as a clarifier. Particles even heavier than the skim, such as sediment, somatic cells, and some bacteria, are thrown to the outside and collected in pockets on the side of the separator. This material, known as “separator sludge,” is discharged periodically and sometimes automatically when buildup is sensed.

      Most separators are controlled by computers and can produce milk of almost any fat content. Current standards generally set whole milk at 3.25 percent fat, low-fat at 1 or 2 percent, and skim at less than 0.5 percent. (Most skim milk is actually less than 0.01 percent fat.)

homogenization

      Milk is homogenized to prevent fat globules from floating to the top and forming a cream layer or cream plug. Homogenizers are simply heavy-duty, high-pressure pumps equipped with a special valve at the discharge end. They are designed to break up fat globules from their normal size of up to 18 micrometres to less than 2 micrometres in diameter (a micrometre is one-millionth of a metre). Hot milk (with the fat in liquid state) is pumped through the valve under high pressure, resulting in a uniform and stable distribution of fat throughout the milk.

      Two-stage homogenization is sometimes practiced, during which the milk is forced through a second homogenizer valve or a breaker ring. The purpose is to break up fat clusters or clumps and thus produce a more uniform product with a slightly reduced viscosity.

      Homogenization is considered successful when there is no visible separation of cream and the fat content in the top 100 millilitres of milk in a one-litre bottle does not differ by more than 10 percent from the bottom portion after standing 48 hours.

      In addition to avoiding a cream layer, other benefits of homogenized milk include a whiter appearance, richer flavour, more uniform viscosity, better “whitening” in coffee, and softer curd tension (making the milk more digestible for humans). Homogenization is also essential for providing improved body and texture in ice cream, as well as numerous other products such as half-and-half, cream cheese, and evaporated milk.

packaging

      Until the mid 1880s milk was dipped from large cans into the consumer's own containers. The glass milk bottle was invented in 1884 and became the main container of retail distribution until World War II, when wax-coated paper containers were introduced. Plastic-coated paper followed and became the predominate container. Today more than 75 percent of retail sales are in translucent plastic jugs. Glass bottles make up less than 0.5 percent of the business and are used mostly at dairy stores and for home delivery.

      Modern packaging machines are self-cleaning and provide an aseptic environment for milk packaging. Their improved design has allowed milk to remain fresh for at least 14 days and has made it possible for use with ultrapasteurizing equipment for extended shelf-life applications.

Specialty milks

      Many specialty milks are now available (even in remote areas) as a result of the 45-day refrigerated shelf life of ultrapasteurized milk. One of the most useful products, lactose-reduced milk, is available in both nonfat and low-fat composition as well as in many flavoured versions. The lactose (milk sugar) is reduced by 70 to 100 percent, making it possible for lactose-intolerant individuals to enjoy the benefits of milk in their diets. Lactose reduction is accomplished by subjecting the appropriate milk to the action of the enzyme lactase in a refrigerated tank for approximately 24 hours. The enzyme breaks down the lactose to more readily digestible glucose and galactose. The reaction is halted when the lactose is consumed or when the milk is heat-treated. The resulting beverage is sweeter than regular milk but acceptable for most uses.

      Other specialty milks include calcium-fortified, special and seasonal flavours (e.g., eggnog), and high-volume flavoured milk shakes (frequently served in schools).

Condensed and dried milk

Condensed and evaporated milk

      Whole, low-fat, and skim milks, as well as whey and other dairy liquids, can be efficiently concentrated by the removal of water, using heat under vacuum. Since reducing atmospheric pressure lowers the temperature at which liquids boil, the water in milk is evaporated without imparting a cooked flavour. Water can also be removed by ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis, but this membrane technology is more expensive. Usually about 60 percent of the water is removed, which reduces storage space and shipping costs. Whole milk, when concentrated, usually contains 7.5 percent milk fat and 25.5 percent total milk solids. Skim milk can be condensed to approximately 20 to 40 percent solids, depending on the buyer's needs.

 Condensed milk is often sold in refrigerated tank-truck loads to manufacturers of candy, bakery goods, ice cream, cheese, and other foods. When preserved by heat in individual cans, as shown in Figure 1—>, it is usually called “evaporated milk.” In this process the concentrated milk is homogenized, fortified with vitamin D (A and D in evaporated skim milk), and sealed in a can sized for the consumer. A stabilizer, such as disodium phosphate or carrageenan, is also added to keep the product from separating during processing and storage. The sealed can is then sterilized at 118° C (244° F) for 15 minutes, cooled, and labeled. Evaporated milk keeps indefinitely, although staling and browning may occur after a year.

      New ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) processing and aseptic filling of foil-lined cardboard or metal cans is also practiced. Although this process is more costly, the scorched flavour is not as pronounced as with conventionally processed evaporated milk.

      Sweetened condensed milk is also made by partially removing the water (as in evaporated milk) and adding sugar. The final product contains about 8.5 percent milk fat and at least 28 percent total milk solids. Sugar is added in sufficient amount to prevent bacterial action and subsequent spoilage. Usually, at least 60 percent sugar in the water phase is required to provide sufficient osmotic pressure for prevention of bacterial growth. Because sweetened condensed milk (or skim milk) is preserved by sugar, the milk merely needs to be pasteurized before being placed in a sanitary container (usually a metal can).

Dry milk products

      Milk and by-products of milk production are often dried to reduce weight, to aid in shipping, to extend shelf life, and to provide a more useful form as an ingredient for other foods. In addition to skim and whole milk, a variety of useful dairy products are dried, including buttermilk, malted milk, instant breakfast, sweet cream, sour cream, butter powder, ice cream mix, cheese whey, coffee creamer, dehydrated cheese products, lactose, and caseinates. Many drying plants are built in conjunction with a butter-churning plant. These plants utilize the skim milk generated from the separated cream and the buttermilk produced from churning the butter. Most products are dried to less than 4 percent moisture to prevent bacterial growth and spoilage. However, products containing fat lose their freshness rather quickly owing to the oxidation of fatty acids, leading to rancidity.

      Two types of dryers are used in the production of dried milk products—drum dryers and spray dryers. Each dryer has certain advantages.

Drum dryers

      The simplest and least expensive is the drum, or roller, dryer. It consists of two large steel cylinders that turn toward each other and are heated from the inside by steam. The concentrated product is applied to the hot drum in a thin sheet that dries during less than one revolution and is scraped from the drum by a steel blade. The flakelike powder dissolves poorly in water but is often preferred in certain bakery products. Drum dryers are also used to manufacture animal feed where texture, flavour, and solubility are not a major consideration.

Spray dryers

      Spray dryers are more commonly used since they do less heat damage and produce more soluble products. Concentrated liquid dairy product is sprayed in a finely atomized form into a stream of hot air. The air may be heated by steam-heated “radiators” or directly by sulfur-free natural gas. The drying chamber may be rectangular (the size of a living room), conical, or silo-shaped (up to five stories high). The powder passes from the drying chamber through a series of cyclone collectors and is usually placed in plastic-lined, heavy-duty paper bags.

      Spray-dried milk is also difficult to reconstitute or mix with water. Therefore, a process called agglomeration was developed to “instantize” the powder, or make it more soluble. This process involves rewetting the fine, spray-dried powder with water to approximately 8 to 15 percent moisture and following up with a second drying cycle. The powder is now granular and dissolves very well in water. Virtually all retail packages of nonfat dry milk powder are instantized in this manner.

butter

Composition

      Butter is one of the most highly concentrated forms of fluid milk. Twenty litres of whole milk are needed to produce one kilogram of butter. This process leaves approximately 18 litres of skim milk and buttermilk, which at one time were disposed of as animal feed or waste. Today the skim portion has greatly increased in value and is fully utilized in other products.

      Commercial butter is 80–82 percent milk fat, 16–17 percent water, and 1–2 percent milk solids other than fat (sometimes referred to as curd). It may contain salt, added directly to the butter in concentrations of 1 to 2 percent. Unsalted butter is often referred to as “sweet” butter. This should not be confused with “sweet cream” butter, which may or may not be salted. Reduced-fat, or “light,” butter usually contains about 40 percent milk fat.

      Before World War II much of the butter produced in the United States was made from gathered cream. Farmers separated milk on the farm and shipped cans of cream to a butter factory, sometimes once or twice a week. The cream was often sour and needed to be neutralized (with sodium hydroxide) before churning. When transportation and the value of the skim portion improved, whole milk was shipped to the creamery, providing a supply of “sweet cream” (i.e., cream that had not soured) for butter making. With these improvements came the advent of higher-quality butter and the demise of naturally soured buttermilk. Virtually all butter in the United States today is sweet cream butter. A notable exception is butter made from whey cream salvaged in the cheese-making process. The quality of fresh whey cream butter is indistinguishable from sweet cream butter.

Production

 As shown in Figure 1—>, butter is produced when the cream emulsion in unhomogenized milk is destabilized by agitation, or churning (churn). Breaking the emulsion produces butterfat granules the size of rice grains. The granules mat together and separate from the water phase or serum, which is known as buttermilk. (This milky liquid is drained away and is either concentrated or dried, later to become an ingredient in ice cream, candy, or other foods.) The butterfat is then washed with clean water and “worked” (kneaded) until more buttermilk separates and is removed. Ultimately, only about 16 percent of the water and milk solids present in the original milk remains trapped in the butter.

      The churning process can take 40 to 60 minutes to complete in a traditional churn, but butter is more commonly made by high-speed continuous “churns” in factories. Although the basic principle is the same, in the continuous churn cream is pumped into a cylinder and mixed by high-speed blades, forming butter granules in seconds. The butter granules are forced through perforated plates while the buttermilk is drained from the system. A salt solution may be added if salted butter is desired. The butter is then worked in a twin screw extruder and emerges ready to be packaged.

Quality concerns

      The quality of butter is based on its body, texture, flavour, and appearance. In the United States the Department of Agriculture (USDA) assigns quality grades to butter based on its score on a standard quality point scale. Grade AA is the highest possible grade; Grade AA butter must achieve a numerical score of 93 out of 100 points based on its aroma, flavour, and texture. Salt (if present) must be completely dissolved and thoroughly distributed. Grade A butter is almost as good, with a score of 92 out of 100 points. Grade B butter is based on a score of 90 points, and it usually is used only for cooking or manufacturing. The flavour of Grade B is not as fresh and sweet, and its body may be crumbly, watery, or sticky.

Additions and treatment

      The addition of salt to butter contributes to its flavour and also acts as a preservative. Added in concentrations of approximately 2 percent, all the salt goes into solution in the water phase. Since the water content of butter is less than 16 percent of the total volume, each water droplet can contain more than 10 percent salt. Such a concentration in the water phase limits bacterial growth overall, since the fat portion of butter is generally safe from microbial degradation.

      Butter may contain added colouring (food colouring). Butter from cows that are eating dry, stored feed during the winter may not contain enough beta-carotene for proper colouring, as it does when cows are pasture-fed. In such cases small amounts of a yellow vegetable colouring from the seed of the annatto tree may be added to enhance the colour.

      Because butter is so firm when first removed from the refrigerator, it is sometimes whipped to improve spreadability. Generally, volume is increased by 50 percent by whipping in air—or, better still, nitrogen or an inert gas in order to prevent oxidation of the fat. Whipped butter, both salted and sweet, is sold in small plastic-coated tubs.

ice cream and other frozen desserts

      Ice cream evolved from flavoured ices that were popular with the Roman nobility in the 4th century BC. The emperor Nero is known to have imported snow from the mountains and topped it with fruit juices and honey. In the 13th century Marco Polo (Polo, Marco) was reported to have returned from China with recipes for making water and milk ices.

      The discovery that salt would lower the freezing point of cracked ice led to the first practical method of making ice cream. Making ice cream in the home was greatly simplified by the invention of the wooden bucket freezer with rotary paddles. In 1851 the first wholesale ice cream was manufactured in Baltimore. With the development of mechanical refrigeration, widespread distribution of ice cream became possible. Ice cream parlours and drugstore soda counters flourished. With refrigerator-freezers now a standard domestic appliance, more than half of all frozen desserts are consumed at home.

Composition of frozen desserts

      Standards for ice cream and most frozen desserts are closely regulated. In the United States, for example, ice cream must contain at least 10 percent fat (butterfat) and 20 percent total milk solids. In freezing, the volume may be doubled by the inclusion of air (known as overrun), but the increase in volume is limited to 100 percent by the requirement that the finished product weigh at least 4.5 pounds per gallon. Total food solids must weigh 1.6 pounds per gallon, thus limiting the water content. Regulations also require all ingredients to be listed, with some additives (such as stabilizers) limited to very small amounts.

      The principal frozen desserts are ice cream, frozen custard, ice milk, frozen yogurt, sherbet, and water ices. Ice cream has the highest fat content, ranging from 10 to 20 percent. Frozen custard, or French ice cream, is basically the same formula as ice cream but contains added eggs or egg solids (usually 1.4 percent by weight). Ice milk may be more commonly called “light” or “reduced-fat” ice cream. It contains between 2 and 7 percent fat and at least 11 percent total milk solids. Frozen yogurt is a cultured frozen product containing the same ingredients as ice cream. It must contain at least 3.25 percent milk fat and 8.25 percent milk solids other than fat and must weigh at least five pounds per gallon. Low-fat frozen yogurt contains between 0.5 and 2 percent milk fat. Nonfat frozen yogurt is limited to less than 0.5 percent milk fat. Frozen yogurts should always contain live cultures of bacteria (see Cultured dairy foods: Yogurt (dairy product)). The target overrun for ice cream, ice milk, and frozen yogurt is 65 to 100 percent. Premium ice creams may be as low as 20 percent overrun, while soft ice creams are in the 30 to 50 percent range.

      Sherbets (sherbet) contain relatively small quantities of milk products. Most standards require between 1 and 2 percent milk fat and between 2 and 5 percent total milk solids. Sherbet contains considerably more sugar and less air than ice cream (the target overrun is 30 to 40 percent), and therefore it is heavier and often contains more calories per serving. Water ices are similar to sherbet, but they contain no milk solids and have a target overrun of 20 to 30 percent.

      Imitation ice cream, known as mellorine, is made in some parts of the United States and other countries. It is made with less expensive vegetable oils instead of butterfat but utilizes dairy ingredients for the milk protein part. Mellorines are intended to compete with ice cream in places where butterfat prices are high.

Ice cream manufacture

      The essential ingredients in ice cream are milk, cream, sugar, flavouring, and stabilizer. Cheaper ingredients such as dry whey, corn syrup, and artificial flavourings may be substituted to create a lower-cost product.

      The first step in ice cream making is formulating a suitable mix. The mix is composed of a combination of dairy ingredients, such as fresh milk and cream, frozen cream, condensed or dried skim, buttermilk, dairy whey, or whey protein concentrate. Sugars may include sucrose, corn syrup, honey, and other syrups. Stabilizers and emulsifiers are added in small amounts to help prevent formation of ice crystals, particularly during temperature fluctuations in storage.

      The ice cream mix is pasteurized (pasteurization) at no less than 79° C (175° F) for 25 seconds. The heated mix is typically homogenized (homogenization) in order to assure a smoother body and texture. Homogenizing also prevents churning (i.e., separating out of fat granules) of the mix in the freezer and increases the viscosity. (Since smaller fat globules have more surface area, the associated milk protein can hydrate more water and produce a more viscous fluid.)

      After homogenization, the hot mix is quickly cooled to 4.4° C (40° F). The mix must age at this temperature for at least four hours to allow the fat to solidify and fat globules to clump. This aging process results in quicker freezing and a smoother product.

      The next step, freezing the mix, is accomplished by one of two methods: continuous freezing, which uses a steady flow of mix, or batch freezing, which makes a single quantity at a time. For both methods, the objective is to freeze the product partially and, at the same time, incorporate air. The freezing process is carried out in a cylindrical barrel that is cooled by a refrigerant, either ammonia or Freon (trademark). The barrel is equipped with stainless steel blades, called dasher blades, which scrape the frozen mixture from the sides of the freezing cylinder and incorporate or whip air into the product. The amount of air incorporated during freezing is controlled by a pump or the dasher speed. Depending on individual conditions, freezing can be instantaneous in the continuous freezer or require approximately 10 minutes in the batch freezer.

      Semifrozen ice cream leaves the freezer at a temperature between −9° and −5° C (16° and 23° F). It is placed in a suitable container and conveyed to a blast freezer, where temperatures are in the range of −29° to −34° C (−20° to −30° F). While in this room, the ice cream continues to freeze without agitation. Rapid freezing at this stage prevents the formation of large ice crystals and favours a smooth body and texture. The length of time in the hardening room depends on the size of the package, but usually 6 to 12 hours are required to bring the internal ice cream temperature to −18° C (0° F) or below. In larger manufacturing plants, final freezing takes place in a hardening tunnel, where packages are automatically conveyed on a continuous belt to the final storage area.

      Much of the appeal of ice cream comes from the variety of standard and holiday flavours (flavouring) available throughout the year. Most ice cream manufacturers make a standard mix consisting of milk, cream, sugars, and stabilizers, to which flavours may be added just prior to freezing. High-volume flavours such as vanilla, chocolate, and strawberry may be blended in their own large batch tanks. For flavours with large particles, such as fruit, nuts, cookies, or candy parts, a “feeder” on the outlet of the freezer is used to inject the material. Ingredients such as fruits and nuts are carefully selected and specially treated to avoid introducing unwanted bacteria into the already pasteurized mix.

      Ice cream and other frozen desserts require no preservatives and have long shelf lives if they are kept below -23° C (-10° F) and are protected from temperature fluctuations. Airtight packaging materials have made it possible to consider frozen storage of six months or longer without loss of flavour or body and texture. When ice cream is finally dipped, composition and overrun will determine ideal scooping temperature. This can vary from −16° to −9° C (3° to 15° F), with lower temperatures resulting in less dipping loss but more effort on the part of the server.

      Ice cream can also be freeze-dried by the removal of 99 percent of the water. Freeze-drying eliminates the need for refrigeration and provides a high-energy food for hikers and campers and a “filling” centre for candy and other confections.

Cultured dairy foods

      With the development of microbiological and nutritional sciences in the late 19th century came the technology necessary to produce cultured dairy products on an industrial or commercial basis. Fermented (fermentation) milks had been made since early times, when warm raw milk from cows, sheep, goats, camels, or horses was naturally preserved by common strains of Streptococcus and Lactobacillus bacteria. (The “cultures” were obtained by including a small portion from the previous batch.) These harmless lactic acid producers were effective in suppressing spoilage and pathogenic organisms, making it possible to preserve fresh milk for several days or weeks without refrigeration. Cultured products eventually became ethnic favourites and were introduced around the world as people migrated.

      Central to the production of cultured milk is the initial fermentation process, which involves the partial conversion of lactose (milk sugar) to lactic acid. Lactose conversion is accomplished by lactic-acid–producing Streptococcus and Lactobacillus bacteria. At temperatures of approximately 32° C (90° F), these bacteria reproduce very rapidly, perhaps doubling their population every 20 minutes. Many minute by-products that result from their metabolic processes assist in further ripening and flavouring of the cultured product. Subsequent or secondary fermentations can result in the production of other compounds, such as diacetyl (a flavour compound found in buttermilk) and alcohol (from yeasts in kefir), as well as butyric acid (which causes bitter or rancid flavours).

      Cultured buttermilk, sour cream, and yogurt are among the most common fermented dairy products in the Western world. Other, lesser-known products include kefir, koumiss, acidophilus milk, and new yogurts containing Bifidobacteria. Cultured dairy foods provide numerous potential health benefits to the human diet. These foods are excellent sources of calcium and protein. In addition, they may help to establish and maintain beneficial intestinal bacterial flora and reduce lactose intolerance.

Buttermilk

 Because of its name, most people assume buttermilk is high in fat. Actually, the name refers to the fact that buttermilk was once the watery end-product of butter making (shown in Figure 1—>). Modern buttermilk is made from low-fat or skim milk and has less than 2 percent fat and sometimes none. Its correct name in many jurisdictions is “cultured low-fat milk” or “cultured nonfat milk.”

      The starting ingredient for buttermilk is skim or low-fat milk. The milk is pasteurized (pasteurization) at 82° to 88° C (180° to 190° F) for 30 minutes, or at 90° C (195° F) for two to three minutes. This heating process is done to destroy all naturally occurring bacteria and to denature the protein in order to minimize wheying off (separation of liquid from solids).

      The milk is then cooled to 22° C (72° F), and starter cultures of desirable bacteria, such as Streptococcus lactis, S. cremoris, Leuconostoc citrovorum, and L. dextranicum, are added to develop buttermilk's acidity and unique flavour. These organisms may be used singly or in combination to obtain the desired flavour.

      The ripening process takes about 12 to 14 hours (overnight). At the correct stage of acid and flavour, the product is gently stirred to break the curd, and it is cooled to 7.2° C (45° F) in order to halt fermentation. It is then packaged and refrigerated.

Sour cream

      Sour cream is made according to the same temperature and culture methods as used for buttermilk. The main difference is the starting material—sour cream starts with light 18 percent cream.

yogurt

      Yogurt is made in a similar fashion to buttermilk and sour cream, but it requires different bacteria and temperatures. Whole, low-fat, or skim milk is fortified with nonfat dry milk or fresh condensed skim milk, in order to raise the total solids to 14 to 16 percent. The mixture is heat-treated as for buttermilk and then cooled to 45.6° to 46.7° C (114° to 116° F). At this point a culture of equal parts Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus is added to the warm milk, followed by one of two processing methods. For set, or sundae-style, yogurt (fruit on the bottom), the cultured mixture is poured into cups containing the fruit, held in a warm room until the milk coagulates (usually about four hours), and then moved to a refrigerated room. For blended (Swiss- or French-style) yogurt, the milk is allowed to incubate in large heated tanks. After coagulation occurs, the mixture is cooled, fruit or other flavours are added, and the product is placed in containers and immediately made ready for sale.

      Many yogurt manufacturers have added Lactobacillus acidophilus to their bacterial cultures. L. acidophilus has possible health benefits in easing yeast infections and restoring normal bacterial balance to the intestinal tract of humans after antibiotic treatment.

cheese

      Primitive forms of cheese have been made since humans started domesticating animals. No one knows exactly who made the first cheese, but, according to one ancient legend, it was made accidentally by an Arabian merchant crossing the desert. The merchant put his drinking milk in a bag made from a sheep's stomach. The natural rennin in the lining of the pouch, along with the heat from the sun, caused the milk to coagulate and then separate into curds and whey. At nightfall, the whey satisfied the man's thirst, and the curd (cheese) had a delightful flavour and satisfied his hunger.

      From its birthplace in the Middle East, cheese making spread as far as England with the expansion of the Roman Empire. During the Middle Ages, monks and merchants of Europe made cheese an established food of that area. In 1620, cheese and cows were part of the ship's stores carried to North America by the Pilgrims on the Mayflower. Until the middle of the 19th century, cheese was a local farm product. Few, if any, distinct varieties of cheese were developed deliberately. Rather, cheese makers in each locality made a cheese that, when ripened under specific conditions of air temperature and humidity, mold, and milk source, acquired certain characteristics of its own. Different varieties appeared largely as a result of accidental changes or modifications in one or more steps of the cheese-making process. Because there was little understanding of the bacteriology and chemistry involved, these changes were little understood and difficult to duplicate. Cheese making was an art, and the process was a closely guarded secret that was passed down from one generation to the next.

      With increasing scientific knowledge came a greater understanding of the bacteriological and chemical changes that are necessary to produce many types of cheese. Thus, it has become possible to control more precisely each step in the cheese-making process and to manufacture a more uniform product. Cheese making is now a science as well as an art.

Fundamentals of cheese making

 The cheese-making process consists of removing a major part of the water contained in fresh fluid milk while retaining most of the solids. Since storage life increases as water content decreases, cheese making can also be considered a form of food preservation through the process of milk fermentation. The fermentation of milk into finished cheese requires several essential steps: preparing and inoculating the milk with lactic-acid–producing bacteria, curdling the milk, cutting the curd, shrinking the curd (by cooking), draining or dipping the whey, salting, pressing, and ripening. These steps, which are illustrated in Figure 1—>, begin with four basic ingredients: milk, microorganisms, rennet, and salt.

Inoculation and curdling

      Milk for cheese making must be of the highest quality. Because the natural microflora present in milk frequently include undesirable types called psychrophiles, good farm sanitation and pasteurization or partial heat treatment are important to the cheese-making process. In addition, the milk must be free of substances that may inhibit the growth of acid-forming bacteria (e.g., antibiotics and sanitizing agents). Milk is often pasteurized (pasteurization) to destroy pathogenic microorganisms and to eliminate spoilage and defects induced by bacteria. However, since pasteurization destroys the natural enzymes found in milk, cheese produced from pasteurized milk ripens less rapidly and less extensively than most cheese made from raw or lightly heat-treated milk.

      During pasteurization, the milk may be passed through a standardizing separator to adjust the fat-to-protein ratio of the milk. In some cases the cheese yield is improved by concentrating protein in a process known as ultrafiltration. The milk is then inoculated with fermenting microorganisms and rennet, which promote curdling.

      The fermenting microorganisms carry out the anaerobic conversion of lactose to lactic acid. The type of organisms used depends on the variety of cheese and on the production process. Rennet is an enzymatic preparation that is usually obtained from the fourth stomach of calves. It contains a number of proteolytic (protein-degrading) enzymes, including rennin and pepsin. Some cheeses, such as cottage cheese and cream cheese, are produced by acid coagulation alone. In the presence of lactic acid, rennet, or both, the milk protein casein clumps together and precipitates out of solution; this is the process known as curdling, or coagulation. Coagulated casein assumes a solid or gellike structure (the curd), which traps most of the fat, bacteria, calcium, phosphate, and other particulates. The remaining liquid (the whey) contains water, proteins resistant to acidic and enzymatic denaturation (e.g., antibodies), carbohydrates (lactose), and minerals.

      Lactic acid produced by the starter culture organisms has several functions. It promotes curd formation by rennet (the activity of rennet requires an acidic pH), causes the curd to shrink, enhances whey drainage (syneresis), and helps prevent the growth of undesirable microorganisms during cheese making and ripening. In addition, acid affects the elasticity of the finished curd and promotes fusion of the curd into a solid mass. Enzymes released by the bacterial cells also influence flavour development during ripening.

       salt is usually added to the curd. In addition to enhancing flavour, it helps to withdraw the whey from the curd and inhibits the growth of undesirable microorganisms.

Cutting and shrinking

      After the curd is formed, it is cut with fine wire “knives” into small cubes approximately one centimetre (one-half inch) square. The curd is then gently heated, causing it to shrink. The degree of shrinkage determines the moisture content and the final consistency of the cheese. Whey is removed by draining or dipping. The whey may be further processed to make whey cheeses (e.g., ricotta) or beverages, or it may be dried in order to preserve it as a food ingredient.

Ripening

      Most cheese is ripened for varying amounts of time in order to bring about the chemical changes necessary for transforming fresh curd into a distinctive aged cheese. These changes are catalyzed by enzymes from three main sources: rennet or other enzyme preparations of animal or vegetable origin added during coagulation, microorganisms that grow within the cheese or on its surface, and the cheese milk itself. The ripening time may be as short as one month, as for Brie, or a year or more, as in the case of sharp cheddar.

      The ripening of cheese is influenced by the interaction of bacteria, enzymes, and physical conditions in the curing room. The speed of the reactions is determined by temperature and humidity conditions in the room as well as by the moisture content of the cheese. In most cheeses lactose continues to be fermented to lactic acid and lactates, or it is hydrolyzed to form other sugars. As a result, aged cheeses such as Emmentaler and cheddar have no residual lactose.

      In a similar manner, proteins (protein) and lipids (lipid) (fats) are broken down during ripening. The degree of protein decomposition, or proteolysis, affects both the flavour and the consistency of the final cheese. It is especially apparent in Limburger and some blue-mold ripened cheeses. Surface-mold ripened cheeses, such as Brie, rely on enzymes produced by the white Penicillium camemberti mold to break down proteins from the outside. When lipids are broken down (as in Parmesan and Romano cheeses), the process is called lipolysis.

      The eyes, or holes, typical of Swiss-type cheeses such as Emmentaler and Gruyère come from a secondary fermentation that takes place when, after two weeks, the cheeses are moved from refrigerated curing to a warmer room, where temperatures are in the range of 20° to 24° C (68° to 75° F). At this stage, residual lactates provide a suitable medium for propionic acid bacteria (Propionibacterium shermanii) to grow and generate carbon dioxide gas. Eye formation takes three to six weeks. Warm-room curing is stopped when the wheels develop a rounded surface and the echo of holes can be heard when the cheese is thumped. The cheese is then moved back to a cold room, where it is aged at about 7° C (45° F) for 4 to 12 months in order to develop its typical sweet, nutty flavour.

      The unique ripening of blue-veined cheeses (blue cheese) comes from the mold spores Penicillium roqueforti or P. glaucum, which are added to the milk or to the curds before pressing and are activated by air. Air is introduced by “needling” the cheese with a device that punches about 50 small holes into the top. These air passages allow mold spores to grow vegetative cells and spread their greenish blue mycelia, or threadlike structures, through the cheese. Penicillium molds are also rich in proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes, so that during ripening a variety of trace compounds also are produced, such as free amines, amino acids, carbonyls, and fatty acids—all of which ultimately affect the flavour and texture of the cheese.

      Surface-ripened cheeses such as Gruyère, brick, Port Salut, and Limburger derive their flavour (flavouring) from both internal ripening and the surface environment. For instance, the high-moisture wiping of the surface of Gruyère gives that cheese a fuller flavour than its Emmentaler counterpart. Specific organisms, such as Brevibacterium linens, in Limburger cheese result in a reddish brown surface growth and the breakdown of protein to amino nitrogen. The resulting odour is offensive to some, but the flavour and texture of the cheese are pleasing to many.

      Not all cheeses are ripened. Cottage, cream, ricotta, and most mozzarella cheeses are ready for sale as soon as they are made. All these cheeses have sweet, delicate flavours and often are combined with other foods.

Varieties of cheese

       Varieties of Cheese, Classified by Hardness and Ripening Method, TableAs a result of the many combinations of milks, cultures, enzymes, molds, and technical processes, literally hundreds of varieties of cheese are made throughout the world. The different types of cheese can be classified in many ways; the most effective is probably according to hardness or ripening method. The Table (Varieties of Cheese, Classified by Hardness and Ripening Method, Table) groups several varieties of cheese based on these criteria.

      In recent years different types of cheese have been combined in order to increase variety and consumer interest. For example, soft and mildly flavoured Brie is combined with a more pungent semisoft cheese such as blue or Gorgonzola. The resulting “Blue-Brie” has a bloomy white edible rind, while its interior is marbled with blue Penicillium roqueforti mold. The cheese is marketed under various names such as Bavarian Blue, Cambazola, Lymeswold, and Saga Blue. Another combination cheese is Norwegian Jarlsberg. This cheese results from a marriage of the cultures and manufacturing procedures for Dutch Gouda and Swiss Emmentaler.

Pasteurized process cheese

      Some natural cheese is made into process cheese, a product in which complete ripening is halted by heat. The resulting product has an indefinite shelf life. Most process cheese is used in food service outlets and other applications where convenient, uniform melting is required.

      Pasteurized process cheese is made by grinding and mixing natural cheese with other ingredients, such as water, emulsifying agents, colouring, fruits, vegetables, or meat. The mixture is then heated to temperatures of 165° F (74° C) and stirred into a homogeneous, plastic mass. Process cheese foods, spreads, and products differ from process cheese in that they may contain other ingredients, such as nonfat dry milk, cheese whey, and whey protein concentrates, as well as additional amounts of water.

      American cheddar is processed most frequently. However, other cheeses such as washed-curd, Colby, Swiss (Emmentaler), Gruyère, and Limburger are similarly processed. In a slight variation, cold pack or club cheese is made by grinding and mixing together one or more varieties of cheese without heat. This cheese food may contain added flavours or ingredients.

David K. Bandler

Additional Reading

R. MacRae, R.K. Robinson, and M.J. Sadler (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology, and Nutrition, 8 vol. (1993); and Y.H. Hui (ed.), Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology, 4 vol. (1992), are general works that cover all aspects of the science of food. P. Fellows, Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practices (1988), is an introductory text.R. Paul Singh R. Early (ed.), The Technology of Dairy Products (1992); and Alan H. Varnam and Jane P. Sutherland, Milk and Milk Products: Technology, Chemistry, and Microbiology (1994), treat the general field of dairy technology and provide a broad view of processing considerations for dairy products. Y.U. Hui (ed.), Dairy Science and Technology Handbook, 3 vol. (1993), brings together needed information on the principles and properties of dairy ingredients and on manufacturing technologies, applications, and engineering.Works specifically covering the chemistry and microbiological disciplines are Noble P. Wong (ed.), Fundamentals of Dairy Chemistry, 3rd ed. (1988); and R.K. Robinson (ed.), Dairy Microbiology, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1990). Testing and analytical procedures are covered by Standard Methods for the Examination of Dairy Products, 16th ed. (1993); and Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (quinquennial). F.W. Bodyfelt, J. Tobias, and G.M. Trout, The Sensory Evaluation of Dairy Products (1988), is the best reference for organoleptic properties.W.S. Arbuckle, Ice Cream, 4th ed. (1986), a classic text, chronicles the development of the ice cream industry, covering all aspects from manufacturing technology to techniques for dipping and serving. The most useful work for the cheese industry is Frank Kosikowski, Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods, 2nd ed. (1977, reissued 1982), providing detailed explanations, descriptions, and procedures for making and enjoying cheese. P.F. Fox (ed.), Cheese: Chemistry, Physics, and Microbiology, 2 vol. (1987), contains more detailed scientific explanations on the cheese-making process. Vincent L. Zehren and D.D. (Dave) Nusbaum, Process Cheese (1992), discusses technology. Richard K. Robinson (ed.), A Colour Guide to Cheese and Fermented Milks (1995); and Bernard Nantet et al., Cheeses of the World (1993), are two illustrated popular texts.David K. Bandler

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