coastal landforms

▪ geology

Introduction

      any of the relief features present along any coast, the result of a combination of processes, sediments, and the geology of the coast itself.

      The coastal environment of the world is made up of a wide variety of landforms manifested in a spectrum of sizes and shapes ranging from gently sloping beaches to high cliffs, yet coastal landforms are best considered in two broad categories: erosional and depositional. In fact, the overall nature of any coast may be described in terms of one or the other of these categories. It should be noted, however, that each of the two major landform types may occur on any given reach of coast.

Factors and forces in the formation of coastal features

      The landforms that develop and persist along the coast are the result of a combination of processes acting upon the sediments and rocks present in the coastal zone. The most prominent of these processes involves waves and the currents that they generate, along with tides. Other factors that significantly affect coastal morphology are climate and gravity.

Waves (wave)

      The most obvious of all coastal processes is the continual motion of the waves moving toward the beach. Waves vary considerably in size over time at any given location and also vary markedly from place to place. Waves interact with the ocean bottom as they travel into shallow water; as a result, they cause sediment to become temporarily suspended and available for movement by coastal currents. The larger the wave, the deeper the water in which this process takes place and the larger the particle that can be moved. Even small waves that are only a few tens of centimetres high can pick up sand as they reach the shore. Larger waves can move cobbles and rock material as large as boulders.

      Generally, small waves cause sediment—usually sand—to be transported toward the coast and to become deposited on the beach. Larger waves, typically during storms, are responsible for the removal of sediment from the coast and its conveyance out into relatively deep water.

      Waves erode the bedrock along the coast largely by abrasion. The suspended sediment particles in waves, especially pebbles and larger rock debris, have much the same effect on a surface as sandpaper does. Waves have considerable force and so may break up bedrock simply by impact.

Longshore currents

      Waves usually approach the coast at some acute angle rather than exactly parallel to it. Because of this, the waves are bent (or refracted) as they enter shallow water, which in turn generates a current along the shore and parallel to it. Such a current is called a longshore current, and it extends from the shoreline out through the zone of breaking waves. The speed of the current is related to the size of the waves and to their angle of approach. Under rather quiescent conditions, longshore currents move only about 10–30 centimetres per second; however, under stormy conditions they may exceed one metre per second. The combination of waves and longshore current acts to transport large quantities of sediment along the shallow zone adjacent to the shoreline.

      Because longshore currents are caused by the approaching and refracting waves, they may move in either direction along the coast, depending on the direction of wave approach. This direction of approach is a result of the wind direction, which is therefore the ultimate factor in determining the direction of longshore currents and the transport of sediment along the shoreline.

      Although a longshore current can entrain sediment if it moves fast enough, waves typically cause sediment to be picked up from the bottom, and the longshore current transports it along the coast. In some locations there is quite a large volume of net sediment transport along the coast because of a dominance of one wind direction—and therefore wave direction—over another. This volume may be on the order of 100,000 cubic metres per year. Other locations may experience more of a balance in wave approach, which causes the longshore current and sediment transport in one direction to be nearly balanced by the same process in the other direction.

Rip currents (rip current)

      Another type of coastal current caused by wave activity is the rip current (incorrectly called rip tide in popular usage). As waves move toward the beach, there is some net shoreward transport of water. This leads to a slight but important upward slope of the water level (setup), so that the absolute water level at the shoreline is a few centimetres higher than it is beyond the surf zone. This situation is an unstable one, and water moves seaward through the surf zone in an effort to relieve the instability of the sloping water. The seaward movement is typically confined to narrow pathways. In most cases, rip currents are regularly spaced and flow at speeds of up to several tens of centimetres per second. They can carry sediment and often are recognized by the plume of suspended sediment moving out through the surf zone. In some localities rip currents persist for months at the same site, whereas in others they are quite ephemeral.

Tides (tide)

      The rise and fall of sea level caused by astronomical conditions is regular and predictable. There is a great range in the magnitude of this daily or semi-daily change in water level. Along some coasts the tidal range is less than 0.5 metre, whereas in the Bay of Fundy (Fundy, Bay of) in southeastern Canada the maximum tidal range is just over 16 metres. A simple but useful classification of coasts is based solely on tidal range without regard to any other variable. Three categories have been established: micro-tidal (less than two metres), meso-tidal (two to four metres), and macro-tidal (more than four metres). Micro-tidal coasts constitute the largest percentage of the world's coasts, but the other two categories also are widespread.

      The role of tides in molding coastal landforms is twofold: (1) tidal currents transport large quantities of sediment and may erode bedrock, and (2) the rise and fall of the tide distributes wave energy across a shore zone by changing the depth of water and the position of the shoreline.

      Tidal currents transport sediment in the same way that longshore currents do. The speeds necessary to transport the sediment (typically sand) are generated only under certain conditions—usually in inlets, at the mouths of estuaries, or any other place where there is a constriction in the coast through which tidal exchange must take place. Tidal currents on the open coast, such as along a beach or rocky coast, are not swift enough to transport sediment. The speed of tidal currents in constricted areas, however, may exceed two metres per second, especially in inlets located on a barrier island complex. The speed of these tidal currents is dictated by the volume of water that must pass through the inlet during a given flood or ebb-tide cycle. This may be either six or 12 hours in duration, depending on whether the local situation is semidiurnal (12-hour cycle) or diurnal (24-hour cycle). The volume of water involved, called the tidal prism, is the product of the tidal range and the area of the coastal bay being served by the inlet. This means that though there may be a direct relationship between tidal range and tidal-current speed, it is also possible to have very swift tidal currents on a coast where the tidal range is low if the bay being served by the inlet is quite large. This is a very common situation along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico (Mexico, Gulf of) where the range is typically less than one metre but where there are many large coastal bays.

      The rise and fall of the tide along the open coast has an indirect effect on sediment transport, even though currents capable of moving sediment are not present. As the tide comes in and then retreats along a beach or on a rocky coast, it causes the shoreline to move accordingly. This movement of the shoreline changes the zone where waves and longshore currents can do their work. Tidal range in combination with the topography of the coast is quite important in this situation. The greater the tidal range, the more effect this phenomenon has on the coast. The slope of a beach or other coastal landform also is important, however, because a steep cliff provides only a nominal change in the area over which waves and currents can do their work even in a macro-tidal environment. On the other hand, a broad, gently sloping beach or tidal flat may experience a change in the shoreline of as much as one kilometre during a tidal cycle in a macro-tidal setting. Examples of this situation occur in the Bay of Fundy and along the West German coast of the North Sea.

Other factors and processes

       climate is an extremely important factor in the development of coastal landforms. The elements of climate include rainfall (rain), temperature, and wind.

      Rainfall is important because it provides runoff in the form of streams and also is a factor in producing and transporting sediment to the coast. This fact gives rise to a marked contrast between the volume and type of sediment carried to the coast in a tropical environment and those in a desert environment.

       temperature is important for two quite different reasons. It is a factor in the physical weathering of sediments and rocks along the coast and in the adjacent drainage basins. This is particularly significant in cold regions where the freezing of water within cracks in rocks causes the rocks to fragment and thereby yield sediment. Some temperate and arctic regions have shore ice up to several months each year. Under these conditions there is no wave impact, and the coast becomes essentially static until the ice thaws or breaks up during severe storms. Such conditions prevail for three to four months along much of the coast of the Great Lakes in North America.

       wind is important primarily because of its relationship to waves. Coasts that experience prolonged and intense winds also experience high wave-energy conditions. Seasonal patterns in both wind direction and intensity can be translated directly into wave conditions. Wind also can be a key factor in directly forming coastal landforms, particularly coastal dunes. The persistence of onshore winds throughout much of the world's coast gives rise to sand dunes in all places where enough sediment is available and where there is a place for it to accumulate.

       gravity, too, plays a major role in coastal processes. Not only is it indirectly involved in processes associated with wind and waves but it also is directly involved through downslope movement of sediment and rock as well. This role is particularly evident along shoreline cliffs where waves attack the base of the cliffs and undercut the slope, resulting in the eventual collapse of rocks into the sea or their accumulation as debris at the base of the cliffs.

Landforms of erosional coasts

      There are two major types of coastal morphology: one is dominated by erosion and the other by deposition. They exhibit distinctly different landforms, though each type may contain some features of the other. In general, erosional coasts are those with little or no sediment, whereas depositional coasts are characterized by abundant sediment accumulation over the long term. Both temporal and geographic variations may occur in each of these coastal types.

      Erosional coasts typically exhibit high relief and rugged topography. They tend to occur on the leading edge of lithospheric plates, the west coasts of both North and South America being excellent examples. Glacial activity also may give rise to erosional coasts, as in northern New England and in the Scandinavian countries. Typically, these coasts are dominated by exposed bedrock with steep slopes and high elevations adjacent to the shore. Although these coasts are erosional, the rate of shoreline retreat is slow due to the resistance of bedrock to erosion. The type of rock and its lithification are important factors in the rate of erosion.

Sea cliffs (cliff)

      The most widespread landforms of erosional coasts are sea cliffs. These very steep to vertical bedrock cliffs range from only a few metres high to hundreds of metres above sea level. Their vertical nature is the result of wave-induced erosion near sea level and the subsequent collapse of rocks at higher elevation. Cliffs that extend to the shoreline commonly have a notch cut into them where waves have battered the bedrock surface.

      At many coastal locations there is a thin, narrow veneer of sediment forming a beach along the base of sea cliffs. This sediment may consist of sand, but it is more commonly composed of coarse material—cobbles or boulders. Beaches of this kind usually accumulate during relatively low wave-energy conditions and are removed during the stormy season when waves are larger. The coasts of California and Oregon contain many places where this situation prevails. The presence of even a narrow beach along a rocky coast provides the cliffs protection against direct wave attack and slows the rate of erosion.

Wave-cut platforms (wave-cut platform)

      At the base of most cliffs along a rocky coast one finds a flat surface at about the mid-tide elevation. This is a benchlike feature called a wave-cut platform, or wave-cut bench. Such surfaces may measure from a few metres to hundreds of metres wide and extend to the base of the adjacent cliff. They are formed by wave action on the bedrock along the coast. The formation process can take a long time, depending on the type of rock present. The existence of extensive wave-cut platforms thus implies that sea level did not fluctuate during the periods of formation. Multiple platforms of this type along a given reach of coast indicate various positions of sea level.

Sea stacks

      Erosion along rocky coasts occurs at various rates and is dependent both on the rock type and on the wave energy at a particular site. As a result of the above-mentioned conditions, wave-cut platforms may be incomplete, with erosional remnants on the horizontal wave-cut surface. These remnants are called sea stacks, and they provide a spectacular type of coastal landform. Some are many metres high and form isolated pinnacles on the otherwise smooth wave-cut surface. Because erosion is a continual process, these features are not permanent and will eventually be eroded, leaving no trace of their existence.

Sea arches

      Another spectacular type of erosional landform is the sea arch, which forms as the result of different rates of erosion typically due to the varied resistence of bedrock. These archways may have an arcuate or rectangular shape, with the opening extending below water level. The height of an arch can be up to tens of metres above sea level.

      It is common for sea arches to form when a rocky coast undergoes erosion and a wave-cut platform develops. Continued erosion can result in the collapse of an arch, leaving an isolated sea stack on the platform. Still further erosion removes the stack, and eventually only the wave-cut platform remains adjacent to the eroding coastal cliff.

Landforms of depositional coasts

      Coasts adjacent to the trailing edge of lithospheric plates tend to have widespread coastal plains and low relief. The Atlantic (Atlantic Ocean) and Gulf coasts of the United States are representative. Such coasts may have numerous estuaries and lagoons with barrier islands or may develop river deltas. They are characterized by an accumulation of a wide range of sediment types and by many varied coastal environments. The sediment is dominated by mud and sand; however, some gravel may be present, especially in the form of shell material.

      Depositional coasts may experience erosion at certain times and places due to such factors as storms, depletion of sediment supply, and rising sea level. The latter is a continuing problem as the mean annual temperature of the Earth rises and the ice caps melt. Nevertheless, the overall, long-range tendency along these coasts is that of sediment deposition.

      All of the processes discussed at the beginning of this section are in evidence along depositional coasts. Waves, wave-generated currents, and tides significantly influence the development of depositional landforms. In general, waves exert energy that is distributed along the coast essentially parallel to it. This is accomplished by the waves themselves as they strike the shore and also by the longshore currents that move along it. In contrast, tides tend to exert their influence perpendicular to the coast as they flood and ebb. The result is that the landforms that develop along some coasts are due primarily to wave processes while along other coasts they may be due mainly to tidal processes. Some coasts are the result of near equal balance between tide and wave processes. As a consequence, investigators speak of wave-dominated coasts, tide-dominated coasts, and mixed coasts.

      A wave-dominated coast is one that is characterized by well-developed sand beaches typically formed on long barrier islands with a few widely spaced tidal inlets. The barrier islands tend to be narrow and rather low in elevation. Longshore transport is extensive, and the inlets are often small and unstable. Jetties (jetty) are commonly placed along the inlet mouths to stabilize them and keep them open for navigation. The Texas and North Carolina coasts of the United States are excellent examples of this coastal type.

      Tide-dominated coasts are not as widespread as those dominated by waves. They tend to develop where tidal range is high or where wave energy is low. The result is a coastal morphology that is dominated by funnel-shaped embayments and long sediment bodies oriented essentially perpendicular to the overall coastal trend. Tidal flats, salt marshes, and tidal creeks are extensive. The West German coast of the North Sea is a good example of such a coast.

      Mixed coasts are those where both tidal and wave processes exert considerable influence. These coasts characteristically have short stubby barrier islands and numerous tidal inlets. The barriers commonly are wide at one end and narrow at the other. Inlets are fairly stable and have large sediment bodies on both their landward and seaward sides. The Georgia and South Carolina coasts of the United States typify a mixed coast.

General coastal morphology

      Depositional coasts can be described in terms of three primary large-scale types: (1) deltas (delta), (2) barrier island/estuarine systems, and (3) strand-plain coasts. The latter two have numerous features in common.

Deltas

      An accumulation of sediment at the mouth of a river extending beyond the trend of the adjacent coast is called a delta. Deltas vary greatly in both size and shape, but they all require that more sediment is deposited at the river mouth than can be carried away by coastal processes. A delta also requires a shallow site for accumulation—namely, a gently sloping continental shelf.

 The size of a delta is typically related to the size of the river, specifically to its discharge. The shape of a delta, on the other hand, is a result of the interaction of the river with tidal and wave processes along the coast. A classification utilizing each of these three factors as end members provides a good way of considering the variation in delta morphology (Figure 1—>). River-dominated deltas are those where both wave and tidal current energy on the coast is low and the discharge of water and sediment are little affected by them. The result is an irregularly shaped delta with numerous digitate distributaries.The Mississippi (Mississippi River) Delta is a good example of a river-dominated delta.

      Waves may remove much of the fine deltaic sediment and smooth the outer margin of the delta landform as well. This results in a smooth, cuspate delta that has few distributaries. The São Francisco (São Francisco River) Delta in Brazil is such a delta. Some wave-dominated deltas are strongly affected by longshore currents, and the river mouth is diverted markedly along the coast. The Sénégal (Sénégal River) Delta on the west coast of Africa is an example.

      Tide-dominated deltas tend to be developed in wide, funnel-shaped configurations with long sand bodies that fan out from the coast. These sand bodies are oriented with the strong tidal currents of the delta. Tidal flats and salt marshes also are common. The Ord (Ord River) Delta in northern Australia and the Ganges-Brahmaputra (Ganges River) Delta in Bangladesh are representative of such a deltaic type.

Barrier island/estuarine systems

      Many depositional coasts display a complex of environments and landforms that typically occur together. Irregular coasts have numerous embayments, many of which are fed by streams. Such embayments are called estuaries (estuary), and they receive much sediment due to runoff from an adjacent coastal plain. Seaward of the estuaries are elongate barrier islands that generally parallel the shore. Consisting mostly of sand, they are formed primarily by waves and longshore currents. These barrier islands are typically separated from the mainland and may have lagoons, which are long, narrow, coastal bodies of water situated between the barrier and the mainland.

      Most barrier islands contain a well-developed beach, coastal dunes, and various environments on their landward side, including tidal flats, marshes, or washover fans. Such coastal barriers are typically interrupted by tidal inlets, which provide circulation between the various coastal bays and the open marine environment. These inlets also are important pathways for organisms that migrate between coastal and open marine areas as well as for pleasure and commercial boat traffic.

Strand-plain coasts

      Some wave-dominated coasts do not contain estuaries and have no barrier island system. These coasts, however, do have beaches and dunes, and may even have coastal marshes. The term strand plain has been applied to coasts of this sort. Examples include parts of western Louisiana and eastern Texas. In most respects, they are similar in morphology to barrier islands but lack inlets.

Beaches and coastal dunes

      There are several specific landforms representative of coastal environments that are common to each of the three major categories described above. Especially prominent among these are beaches (beach) and dunes. They are the primary landforms on barrier islands, strand-plain coasts, and many deltas, particularly the wave-dominated variety.

Beaches

      A consideration of the beach must also include the seaward adjacent nearshore environment because the two are intimately related. The nearshore environment extends from the outer limit of the longshore bars that are usually present to the low-tide line. In areas where longshore bars are absent, it can be regarded as coincident with the surf zone. The beach extends from the low-tide line to the distinct change in slope and/or material landward of the unvegetated and active zone of sediment accumulation. It may consist of sand, gravel, or even mud, though sand is the most common beach material.

      The beach profile typically can be divided into two distinct parts: (1) the seaward and relatively steep sloping foreshore, which is essentially the intertidal beach, and (2) the landward, nearly horizontal backshore. Beach profiles take on two different appearances, depending on conditions at any given time. During quiescent wave conditions, the beach is said to be accretional, and both the foreshore and backshore are present. During storm conditions, however, the beach experiences erosion, and the result is typically a profile that shows only the seaward sloping foreshore. Because the beach tends to repair itself during nonstorm periods, a cyclic pattern of profile shapes is common.

      The nearshore zone is where waves steepen and break, and then re-form in their passage to the beach, where they break for the last time and surge up the foreshore. Much sediment is transported in this zone, both along the shore and perpendicular to it. During storms the waves tend to be steep, and erosion of the beach occurs with sediment transported offshore. The intervening calmer conditions permit sediment to be transported landward and rebuild the beach. Because wave conditions may change daily, the nature of the profile and the sediment on the foreshore portion of the beach may also change daily. This is the zone of continual change on the beach.

      The backshore of the beach is not subjected to wave activity except during storm conditions. It is actually in the supra-tidal zone—i.e., the zone above high tide where inundation by water is caused not by regular astronomical tides but rather by storm-generated tides. During nonstorm conditions the back-beach is relatively inactive except for wind action, which may move sediment. In most cases, there is an onshore component to the wind, and sediment is carried from the back-beach landward, typically forming dunes. Any obstruction on the back-beach, such as vegetation, pieces of driftwood, fences, or even trash discarded by people, results in wind-blown sand accumulation.

      There are variations in beach forms along the shore as well as in those perpendicular to the shore. Most common is the rhythmic topography that is seen along the foreshore. A close look at the shoreline along most beaches will show that it is not straight or gently curved but rather that it displays a regularly undulating surface much like a low-amplitude sine curve. This is seen both on the plan view of the shoreline and the topography of the foreshore. The spacing is regular along a given reach of coast, but it may vary from place to place or from time to time at a given place. At some locations, concentrations of gravel or shells may develop, forming beach cusps (more or less triangular deposits that point seaward) during some wave conditions.

      Although there is a common trend to the beach profile, some variation exists both because of energy conditions and because of the material making up the beach. Generally speaking, a beach that is accumulating sediment and experiencing low-energy conditions tends to have a steep foreshore, whereas the same beach would have a relatively gentle foreshore during storm conditions when erosion is prevalent. The grain size of beach sediment also is an important factor in the slope of the foreshore. In general, the coarser the constituent grains, the steeper the foreshore. Examples include the gravel beaches of New England, as contrasted to the gently sloping sand beaches of the Texas coast.

Coastal dunes

      Immediately landward of the beach are commonly found large, linear accumulations of sand known as dunes. (For coverage of dunes in arid and semiarid regions, see sand dune.) They form as the wind carries sediment from the beach in a landward direction and deposits it wherever an obstruction hinders further transport. Sediment supply is the key limiting factor in dune development and is the primary reason why some coastal dunes, such as those on the west Florida peninsula, are quite small, whereas others in such areas as the Texas coast and the Florida panhandle have large dunes.

      Small wind-shadow dunes, or coppice mounds, actually may form on the backshore of the beach. If sediment continues to be supplied and beach erosion does not destroy them, these small sand accumulations will become foredunes, the seaward-most line of coastal dunes. It is in this fashion that a coast progrades, or grows seaward. Many barrier-island or strand-plain coasts exhibit numerous, essentially parallel dune ridges testifying to this type of growth.

      The sediment in dunes tends to be fine to medium sand that is quite well sorted. Shell debris or other material is uncommon unless it is the same size or mass as the dune sand. There are various types of vegetation that grow on the dune surface and stabilize it. These grasses and vines often can be seen on the backshore portion of beaches as well. Dunes lacking vegetation are usually active and exhibit various signs of sand mobility. Most widespread are the nearly ubiquitous ripples that cover the dune surface. Large lobes of sand or even an entire dune may also move as wind blows across the dune. This activity results in cross stratification of the dune in large sweeping patterns of wedge-shaped packages of sand.

Richard A Davis, Jr.

Additional Reading

An introduction to coastal geomorphology is provided by Eric C.F. Bird, Coasts (1984). Other useful texts include Francis P. Shepard and Harold R. Wanless, Our Changing Coastlines (1971); Paul D. Komar, Beach Processes and Sedimentation (1976); J.L. Davies, Geographical Variation in Coastal Development, 2nd ed. (1980); and Richard A. Davis, Jr., Coastal Sedimentary Environments, 2nd rev. and expanded ed. (1985). Eric C.F. Bird and Maurice L. Schwartz (eds.), The World's Coastline (1985), is a comprehensive round-the-world treatment of coastal features. Alan S. Trenhaile, The Geomorphology of Rock Coasts (1987), is an advanced treatment that describes various coastal landforms and the physical and chemical processes contributing to their development.Richard A Davis, Jr.

* * *