Catalan literature

Introduction

      the body of literature written in the Catalan language, a Romance language spoken primarily in the Spanish autonomous regions of Catalonia, Valencia, and the Balearic Islands.

Medieval period

Poetry

      Catalan literature has its roots in the Occitan language and the poetic forms cultivated by the troubadours (troubadour), who dominated the courts of southern France, northern Spain, and northern Italy from the 11th through the 13th century. The early Catalan troubadours Guillem de Bergadà, Hug de Mataplana, and Guillem de Cervera were genuine Provençal poets. In the 14th century the influence of the troubadours began to lessen, and Catalan poets turned to northern France for inspiration. They took over the long French narratives based on romance themes, such as the Arthurian cycle, and wrote in octosyllabic rhymed couplets (called noves rimades [“rhymed news”]).

      In 1393 King John I of Aragon created a poetic academy in Barcelona where he inaugurated a series of poetry competitions called jocs florals (“floral games”). Prizes named after flowers were awarded yearly to poems by a kind of learned society called the Consistori del Gai Saber (“Consistory of the Gay Science”; see also gai saber), the main aim of which was the preservation of the language and style of troubadour poetry. This groundwork would make the 15th century the great period of Catalan poetry. After John's death, in 1395, his successors Martin I and Ferdinand I continued to encourage poetry and helped to emancipate Catalan literary style from foreign influences. As the 15th century advanced, Valencia emerged as a new centre of literary activity.

 The influence of the cants d'amor (“songs of love”) and cants de mort (“songs of death”) of Ausias March (March, Ausias), considered by some the finest poems ever written in Catalan, extended to 16th-century Castile and beyond. Jaume Roig's Spill o llibre de les dones (c. 1460; “The Mirror or Book of Women”), a caustic satire of more than 16,000 lines, offers a vivid portrait of contemporary Valencian life. Another Valencian writer, Joan Roiç de Corella, is perhaps the best representative of the Renaissance.

      After the union of Aragon with Castile in 1479, which unified Spain and ended Catalonia's independence, the Castilian dialect of the Spanish language predominated throughout Spain, spelling a long eclipse of Catalan literature. Juan Boscán (Boscán, Juan) was emblematic of the status of Catalan literature during this period: Catalan by birth—he was born in Barcelona—he wrote solely in Castilian and inaugurated a new school of poetry in that dialect. By the time his works were published in 1543, a year after his death, Catalan poetry had been all but dormant for 50 years.

Prose

      Literary prose emerged with the Homilies d'Organyà (12th- or 13th-century homilies found in the parish of Organyà in the county of Urgell) but did not flourish until the end of the 13th century. Four great chronicles, together with the works of Ramon Llull (Llull, Ramon), represent the peak of medieval Catalan prose. The anonymous chronicle Llibre dels feyts del rey en Jacme (“Book of the Deeds of King James”), compiled after James I's death in 1276 but purportedly autobiographical, is distinguished by its skill of narration and its quality of language. The same qualities are present in Ramon Muntaner's chronicle, which combines accounts of the Grand Catalan Company's expedition to the Morea in southern Greece, of the failed French invasion of Catalonia, and of King James II's conquest of Sardinia. Bernat Desclot's chronicle deals with the reign of King Peter III; King Peter IV planned and revised the last of the four great chronicles.

      Llull's encyclopaedic works, written in Catalan, Arabic, and Latin, cover every branch of medieval knowledge. His exhaustive theological treatise Llibre de contemplació en Déu (c. 1272; “Book of the Contemplation of God”) begins the golden age of Catalan literature; it also provides a wealth of information on 13th-century Catalan society. His Llibre d'Evast e Blanquerna (c. 1284; “Book of Evast and Blanquerna”) is the founding text of Catalan fiction. Known as Blanquerna, it is the narrative of the lives of Blanquerna and his parents, Evast and Aloma, whose marriage comes to represent an ideal Christian marriage; successive chapters tell of stages in the life of Blanquerna, who ascends from altar boy to the papacy but then abandons his throne to enter monastic life. The narrative aims at representing all aspects of Christian existence. It includes the Llibre d'amic e amat (The Book of the Lover and the Beloved), a masterpiece of Christian mysticism. Llull's Llibre de l'orde de cavalleria (between 1275 and 1281; The Book of the Order of Chivalry) and Félix (c. 1288) are didactic works in a narrative framework.

      Bernat Metge (Metge, Bernat) translated Giovanni Boccaccio (Boccaccio, Giovanni)'s story of Griselda from Petrarch's Latin version and, clothing his scholastic learning with poetic imagination, achieved the stylistic masterpiece of early Catalan prose. Metge also wrote Lo somni (c. 1409; The Dream of Bernat Metge) in the tradition of medieval fantasy literature; the narrator converses with mythological characters and with the dead John I, who, from purgatory, exculpates Metge. The chivalric romance Tirant lo Blanc (c. 1460; Eng. trans. Tirant lo Blanc) by Joanot Martorell and Martí Joan de Galba offers a fictional treatment of Catalan exploits in the Middle East. The anonymous Curial e Güelfa (late 14th century; Eng. trans. Curial and Guelfa) draws on Desclot, the only other Catalan romance to do so.

      The beginnings of Catalan drama were represented by a 15th-century mystery play, Misteri d'Elx (“Mystery of Elx”), which through the turn of the 21st century was performed annually in Spain at Elche (Elx), near Valencia, on the Feast of the Assumption.

Decline: 16th–18th century

      With the use of Catalan in decline, the 16th century produced only a single major poet, Pere Serafí, who wrote Cants d'amor (1565) in imitation of March. In prose, only scholars—chiefly antiquaries and historians—still wrote in Catalan. The abundantly documented Crònica universal del principat de Catalunya (“Universal Chronicle of the Principality of Catalonia”), a history of the Catalan kingdom, was the result of 40 years of research by Jeroni Pujadas, although only the first part (1609) is in Catalan. Thereafter literature in Catalan was limited chiefly to folk songs and ballads, which were first collected in Romancerillo catalán (1853; “Little Collection of Catalan Ballads”) by Manuel Milà i Fontanals, who played a considerable part in the Catalan revival of the 19th century.

The Renaixença

      In 1813 appeared the Gramatica y apología de la llengua cathalana (“Grammar and Apology of the Catalan Language”) of Josep Pau Ballot; its publication heralded the Renaixença (“Rebirth”), the literary and linguistic renaissance that characterized the Romantic period in Catalonia. Bonaventura Carles Aribau (Aribau, Buenaventura Carles)'s La pàtria (1833; “The Fatherland”) and the poems of Joaquim Rubió i Ors and Víctor Balaguer (Balaguer, Victor) prepared the way for Jacint Verdaguer, a great epic poet (L'Atlántida [1877], Canigó [1886]) whose creativity served to renew literary Catalan. Verdaguer also wrote lyric and mystic verse. Miquel Costa i Llobera cultivated classical perfection in poetic form. Joan Maragall was Catalonia's first great modern poet; he exerted a powerful influence on later poets.

Modernisme and Noucentisme

      A movement known as Modernisme followed the Renaixença. Like similar movements in Europe and the Americas, Modernisme was preoccupied with naturalistic depictions of society, particularly of the rural world. The best-known examples of modernista fiction include Els sots feréstecs (1901; “The Wild Glens”) by Raimon Casellas, La punyalada (1902–03; “The Knifing”) by Marià Vayreda, and Solitud (1905; Solitude) by Víctor Català (pseudonym of Caterina Albert).

      Modernisme also manifested itself in Catalan drama at the turn of the 20th century. Playwright Àngel Guimerà (Guimerá, Ángel), who was closely associated with the Renaixença, incorporated some modernista elements into his most famous play, Terra baixa (1896; “Lowlands”; Eng. trans. Marta of the Lowlands), a story of social defiance and spiritual regeneration. Els vells (1903; “The Old Ones”) is among the many social dramas of Ignasi Iglésias, who was inspired by the early works of the German playwright Gerhart Hauptmann (Hauptmann, Gerhart). Adrià Gual, author of several works of fantasy, did his best work as director of the Teatre Íntim, founded in Barcelona in 1898, where he oversaw the production of a wide range of drama from around the world.

      Noucentisme was both a continuation of and a reaction to Modernisme. Whereas Modernisme had been rural in its focus, Noucentisme was urban; whereas Modernisme was internationalist, Noucentisme attempted to create a uniquely Catalan style. The term Noucentisme—derived from the Catalan word noucents, “1900s,” and meaning, literally, “1900s-ism”—was created by the essayist Eugeni d'Ors i Rovira (Ors y Rovira, Eugenio d'). He publicized it, starting in 1906, in a series of short essays that were published in the Barcelona daily newspaper La Veu de Catalunya (“The Voice of Catalonia”) under the title Glosari (“Glosses”). Some of d'Ors's books first appeared in this form, as did his novel La ben plantada (1911; “The Stately Woman”). Among the poets associated with Noucentisme are Josep Carner and Guerau de Liost (pseudonym of Jaume Bofill i Mates). Joan Salvat-Papasseit and J.V. Foix broke away from Noucentisme to experiment with European avant-garde forms; such experimentation is best exemplified by Foix's Sol, i de dol (1947; “Alone, and in Mourning”), a collection of sonnets on futuristic themes.

      Unlike Modernisme, Noucentisme was more strongly tied to political and institutional action. Among the institutions that helped to develop and propagate a uniquely Catalan style was the Institut d'Estudis Catalans (Institute of Catalan Studies), which was founded in Barcelona in 1907 and played an integral role in the orthographic regulation of Catalan throughout the 20th century.

      Further development of Catalan literature was delayed by the dictatorship (1923–30) of Miguel Primo de Rivera (Primo de Rivera, Miguel), who banned the use of any language other than Castilian in Spain, and by the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). Many Catalan intellectuals fled abroad, and those who remained found the political climate hardly conducive to literary activity. Conditions in Catalonia remained unfavourable to writers after the war, with Gen. Francisco Franco (Franco, Francisco) adopting a repressive policy toward Catalan culture. Although some Catalan writers chose to ignore the prevailing realities and cultivated a literature of artistic escape, the most influential poets of the mid-20th century, Salvador Espriu and Pere Quart (pseudonym of Joan Oliver i Sallarès), began writing poetry that dealt with social issues.

After 1950

      Catalan literature gained in vitality during the second half of the 20th century. Josep Pla and Joan Fuster amassed a considerable readership for their collections of historical and biographical essays. The best-known of these are the series of profiles Pla published in several volumes, beginning in 1958, under the title Homenots (“Great Men”). Pla's overall project was to portray Catalan culture through its key protagonists: artists, architects, politicians, scientists, and writers. Mercè Rodoreda was a Catalan novelist who achieved international critical and popular success during the second half of the 20th century. Her La plaça del diamant (1962; The Time of the Doves, or The Pigeon Girl) tells the story of a working-class woman during the time of the Spanish Civil War. Rodoreda had a great influence on later woman novelists, the best-known of whom was Montserrat Roig, whose L'òpera quotidiana (1982; “The Everyday Opera”), built around three interlacing love stories, depicts the social diversity of Barcelona. Llorenç Villalonga's Bearn (Eng. trans. The Dolls' Room), which first appeared in Castilian translation in 1956 and was published in its original Catalan in 1961, tells the story of an enlightened and impoverished petty nobleman from the island of Majorca. An edition published in 1966 and titled Bearn; o, la sala de les nines (“Bearn; or, The Dolls' Room”) includes an epilogue that had previously been suppressed by Spanish censors. A series of novels by Baltasar Porcel, beginning with Cavalls cap a la fosca (1975; Horses into the Night), similarly takes a Majorcan family as its focus.

      The generation of writers active in the 1970s experimented with and substantially expanded the traditional boundaries of the Catalan novel. Working under the influence of Latin American novelists publishing during the “boom” of the 1960s and '70s (see Latin American literature: The “boom” novels (Latin American literature)), Catalan writers were especially interested in exploring the relationship between literature and film. They were also inspired by Pere Calders, a Catalan novelist whose Ronda naval sota la boira (1966; “Navy Rounds in the Fog”), a playful experiment in metafiction, found less popular success than did his ironic short stories. Terenci Moix was perhaps the most prominent member of this generation. His gruesome and irreverent novel Món mascle (1971; “Male World”) is a profound analysis of the contradictions within contemporary society.

      Among the poets who followed Foix's avant-garde example was Joan Brossa, who gradually turned to concrete poetry, attempted to bridge the gap separating poetry from sculpture, and began to use film as a means of poetic expression. Among his collections of poetry are Poesia rasa (1970; “Plain Poetry”) and Poemes de seny i de cabell (1977; “Poems of Sense and Hair”). Of the other poets who wrote in Catalan during the second half of the 20th century, the most influential was Gabriel Ferrater. His introspective free verse, gathered in Les dones i els dies (1968; Women and Days), inspired a number of younger contemporaries, including Francesc Parcerisas (L'edat d'or, i altres poemes [1983; The Golden Age, and Other Poems]) and Narcís Comadira (Àlbum de família [1980; “Family Album”]). The witty verse of David Jou shows an approach much more firmly grounded in traditional forms than most Catalan poetry of the period. The poetry of Pere Gimferrer, who shifted between Catalan and Castilian over the course of his career, shows his erudition and his admiration for T.S. Eliot (Eliot, T.S.), notably in L'espai desert (1977; “Deserted Space”). In his verse can be traced the disappearance of the lyrical “I” that informs most of his predecessors' work.

      Catalan theatre began to revive only in the mid-1970s, after the end of Franco's dictatorship. Although Carner, Espriu, and Oliver wrote for the stage prior to that decade, their work could not be performed before the general public. In Espriu's Primera història d'Esther (1948, revised 1966; The Story of Esther) the characters take the form of puppets introduced by a narrator. As the Catalan theatre started to recover and perform the work of canonical writers such as Espriu, it also promoted younger playwrights, such as Josep Maria Benet i Jornet and Sergi Belbel. In Desig (1991; “Desire”), Benet uses metatheatrical techniques to present a philosophical fable. Over the course of Belbel's comedy Morir (1995; “Dying”) actors exchange roles as they portray characters in events that seem to lead to their death in the first act, although they are shown to have escaped death in the second act. During the last decades of the 20th century, theatrical troupes such as Els Joglars (“The Jongleurs”), Els Comediants (“The Comedians”), and La Cubana (“The Cuban”), as well as the women's group T de Teatre (“T as in Theatre”) and the nonverbal theatre group La Fura dels Baus (a nonsensical phrase), gained international recognition.

      At the turn of the 21st century, poetry continued to move away from the forms of personal expression that dominated the middle of the 20th century, and theatre turned increasingly exploratory. Fiction also abandoned the introspective tone and themes of previous decades. Quim Monzó's Vuitanta-sis contes (1999; “Eighty-six Stories”) includes ironic retellings of folk stories that have a postmodern twist. The American roman noir, or “black novel,” was a genre brought to Catalan literature in the 1950s by Manuel de Pedrolo; 50 years later it had come to be cultivated as a self-conscious literary exercise. Ferran Torrent's works place him among the noir novelists. His Cambres d'acer inoxidable (2000; “Stainless Steel Chambers”) dissects contemporary Valencia; the city's social divisions are reflected in the novel's multiple narrators. Other novelists followed a different trend in which they sought to reconsider historical moments that had been previously ignored or suppressed by government censorship or social taboo. Carme Riera's novel Dins el darrer blau (1994; In the Last Blue), for instance, is an engrossing blend of voices—religious and secular, learned and rustic, male and female, local and foreign, straight-talking and convoluted—that describe the tension between Jews forced to convert (at least superficially) to Roman Catholicism and those who betray them to the Inquisition in 17th-century Majorca.

      Catalan literature, among the strongest of the nonnational literatures of Europe, continued to flourish in the 21st century. New novelists such as Alfred Bosch, Ada Castells, and Albert Sánchez Piñol saw their works translated into other European languages. Established poets continued to publish and were joined by new voices, such as David Castillo. The Catalan theatrical scene was most lively in Barcelona, and many works, including novels as well as plays and other works written for the stage, were adapted for Catalan television.

Josep Miquel Sobrer

Additional Reading

Arthur Terry, Catalan Literature (1972), and A Companion to Catalan Literature (2003), provide the best overall view in English of Catalan literary history. Josep Miquel Sobrer, ed. and trans., Catalonia: A Self-Portrait (1992), offers an analysis of modern Catalan culture alongside translations of many Catalan authors. Critical studies include David J. Viera, Medieval Catalan Literature: Prose and Drama (1988); Patricia J. Boehne, The Renaissance Catalan Novel (1989); and Kathryn A. Everly, Catalan Women Writers and Artists (2003).Josep Miquel Sobrer

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