brick and tile

▪ building material

Introduction

      structural clay products, manufactured as standard units, used in building construction.

      The brick, first produced in a sun-dried form at least 6,000 years ago and the forerunner of a wide range of structural clay products used today, is a small building unit in the form of a rectangular block, formed from clay or shale or mixtures and burned (fired) in a kiln, or oven, to produce strength, hardness, and heat resistance. The original concept of ancient brickmakers was that the unit should not be larger than what one man could easily handle; today, brick size varies from country to country, and every nation's brickmaking industry produces a range of sizes that may run into the hundreds. The majority of bricks for most construction purposes have dimensions of approximately 5.5 × 9.5 × 20 centimetres (2¹/₄ × 3³/₄ × 8 inches).

      Structural clay tile, also called terra-cotta, is a larger building unit, containing many hollow spaces (cells), and is used mainly as backup for brick facing or for plastered partitions.

      Structural clay-facing tile is often glazed for use as an exposed finish. Wall and floor tile is a thin material of fireclay with a natural or glazed finish. Quarry tile is a dense pressed fireclay product for floors, patios, and industrial installations in which great resistance to abrasion or acids is required.

      Fireclay brick is used in incinerators, boilers, industrial and home furnaces, and fireplaces. Sewer pipe is fired and glazed for use in sewage-disposal systems, industrial waste systems, and general drainage. Drain tile is porous, round, and sometimes perforated and is used mainly for agricultural drainage. Roofing tile is made in the form of half-round (Spanish tile) and various flat tiles made to resemble slate or cedar shakes; it is used extensively in the Mediterranean countries.

      There are also many products made from cement and aggregates that substitute for, and generally perform the same functions as, the structural clay products listed above. These nonclay brick and tile products are described briefly at the end of the article. The main subject of this article, however, is the brick and tile produced from fireclay.

 Fireclay brick and tile are two of the most important products within the field of industrial ceramics. For background information on the nature of ceramic materials, see the articles presented in Industrial Ceramics: Outline of Coverage—, particularly the articles on traditional ceramics. For lengthy treatment of the principal application of fireclay brick and tile, see the article building construction.

History of brickmaking

      Mud brick, dried in the sun, was one of the first building materials. It is conceivable that on the Nile, Euphrates, or Tigris rivers, following floods, the deposited mud or silt cracked and formed cakes that could be shaped into crude building units to build huts for protection from the weather. In the ancient city of Ur, in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), the first true arch of sun-baked brick was made about 4000 BC. The arch itself has not survived, but a description of it includes the first known reference to mortars other than mud. A bitumen slime was used to bind the bricks together.

      Burned brick, no doubt, had already been produced simply by containing a fire with mud bricks. In Ur the potters discovered the principle of the closed kiln, in which heat could be controlled. The ziggurat at Ur is an example of early monumental brickwork perhaps built of sun-dried brick; the steps were replaced after 2,500 years (about 1500 BC) by burned brick.

      As civilization spread eastward and westward from the Middle East, so did the manufacture and use of brick. The Great Wall of China (210 BC) was built of both burned and sun-dried bricks. Early examples of brickwork in Rome were the reconstruction of the Pantheon (AD 123) with an unprecedented brick and concrete dome, 43 metres (142 feet) in diameter and height, and the Baths of Hadrian, where pillars of terra-cotta were used to support floors heated by roaring fires.

      Enameling, or glazing, of brick and tile was known to the Babylonians and Assyrians as early as 600 BC, again stemming from the potter's art. The great mosques of Jerusalem (Dome of the Rock), Isfahan (in Iran), and Tehrān are excellent examples of glazed tile used as mosaics. Some of the blues found in these glazes cannot be reproduced by present manufacturing processes.

      Western Europe probably exploited brick as a building and architectural unit more than any other area in the world. It was particularly important in combating the disastrous fires that chronically affected medieval cities. After the Great Fire of 1666, London changed from being a city of wood and became one of brick, solely to gain protection from fire.

      Bricks and brick construction were taken to the New World by the earliest European settlers. The Coptic descendants of the ancient Egyptians on the upper Nile River called their technique of making mud brick tōbe. The Arabs transmitted the name to the Spaniards, who, in turn, brought the art of adobe brickmaking to the southern portion of North America. In the north the Dutch West India Company built the first brick building on Manhattan Island in 1633.

Modern brick production

      Basically, the process of brickmaking has not changed since the first fired bricks were produced some thousands of years ago. The steps used then are used today, but with refinements. The various phases of manufacture are as follows: securing the clay, beneficiation, mixing and forming, drying, firing, and cooling.

Securing the clay

      Clays used today are more varied than those used by the first brickmakers. Digging, mining, and various methods of grinding enable the modern manufacturer to utilize many raw materials.

      Clays used in brickmaking represent a wide range of materials that include varying percentages of silica and alumina. They may be grouped in three classes: (1) surface clays found near or on the surface of the Earth, typically in river bottoms; (2) shales (shale), clays subjected to high geologic pressures and varying in hardness from a slate to a form of partially decomposed rock; and (3) fireclays, found deeper under the surface and requiring mining. Fireclays have a more uniform chemical composition than surface clays or shale.

      Surface clays are typically recovered by means of power shovels, bulldozers with scraper blades, and dragline operations. Shales are recovered by blasting and power shovels. Fireclays are mined by conventional techniques.

beneficiation

      Raw clays are often blended to obtain a more uniform consistency. In many cases the material is ground to reduce large rocks or clumps of clay to usable size and is placed in storage sheds. As additional material is stored, samples are blended from a cross section of the storage pile. The material is then transferred to secondary grinders and screens (if necessary) to secure the optimum particle size for mixing with water. In certain processes (e.g., soft-mud) the clay is transferred directly to the mixing area, eliminating all grinding, screening, and blending.

Mixing and forming

      All clays must be mixed with water to form the finished product. The amount of water added will depend on the nature of the clays and their plasticity. This water is removed during drying and firing, which causes shrinkage of the units; to compensate for this shrinkage the molds are made larger than the desired finished products.

 Three basic processes are used in the forming and mixing phase. In the stiff-mud process the clay is mixed with water to render it plastic, after which it is forced through a die that extrudes a column of clay like the toothpaste squeezed from a tube (see the Figure—>). The column gives two dimensions of the unit being manufactured; it is cut to give the third dimension. All structural clay tile is made by this process, as is a great percentage of brick.

      In the older method of forming bricks, the soft-mud process, much more water is used, and the mix is placed in wooden molds to form the size unit desired. To keep the clay from sticking, the molds are lubricated with sand or water; after they are filled, excess clay is struck from the top of the mold. It is from this process that the terms wood-mold, sand-struck, or water-struck brick were derived. Clays with very low plasticity are used in the dry-press process. A minimum of water is added, the material is placed in steel molds, and pressures up to 1,500 pounds per square inch (10,000 kilopascals) are applied.

Drying

      After the bricks are formed, they must be dried to remove as much free water as possible. (They could literally explode if subjected to fire without drying.) Drying, apart from sun drying, is done in drier kilns with controlled temperature, draft, and humidity.

Firing and cooling

      Bricks are fired and cooled in a kiln, an oven-type chamber capable of producing temperatures of 870° to 1,100° C (1,600° to more than 2,000° F), depending on the type of raw material. There are two general types of kilns, periodic and continuous.

      The earliest type of kiln, the scove, is merely a pile of dried bricks with tunnels at the bottom allowing heat from fires to pass through and upward in the pile of bricks. The walls and top are plastered with a mixture of sand, clay, and water to retain the heat; at the top the bricks are placed close together and vented for circulation to pull the heat up through the brick. The clamp kiln is an improvement over the scove kiln in that the exterior walls are permanent, with openings at the bottom to permit firing of the tunnels.

      A further refinement of the scove kiln, round or rectangular in form, is designated as updraft or downdraft, indicating the direction of heat flow. In these kilns the walls and crown are permanent, and there are firing ports around the exterior.

      In so-called periodic kilns the bricks are placed with sufficient air space to allow the heat from the fires to reach all surfaces. They are placed directly from the drier, and heat is gradually increased until the optimum firing temperature is reached. When they are sufficiently fired, the heat is reduced, and they are allowed to cool gradually before removal from the kiln.

      The periodic kiln was improved in efficiency by placing several kilns in line with connecting passages. The first chamber is fired first and the excess heat passed to the next chamber to start heating. Successively, the various chambers are brought to optimum firing and cooling temperatures, until all bricks have been fired and cooled. This arrangement is known as the moving fire zone. In the more modern fixed fire zone, dried bricks are placed on cars carrying as many as 3,000 or more bricks; the cars start at the cool end of a long tunnel kiln and move slowly forward through gradually increasing temperatures to the firing zone, pass through it, and emerge through decreasing heat zones until cooled.

automation

      Since the development of the tunnel kiln, brickmakers have sought to increase automation in their plants. Handling of the finished product has been automated to the point that bricks emerging from the kiln are now automatically stacked in packages of approximately 500, strapped with metal bands, and stored, shipped, and delivered by mechanical equipment.

      In some plants bricks are taken from the cutter machine, placed in the drier or on drier cars by mechanical means, placed on kiln cars by mechanical fingers, removed from the kiln cars mechanically, stacked, strapped, and prepared for shipment without being touched by hand.

Colouring (colour) and texturing of brick and tile

Colour

      The colour of structural clay products may be natural or applied. Natural and applied colouring are described below.

Natural colours

      These depend on the type of clay used in the production processes. They range from whites through grays, buffs, light to dark reds, and into the purple range. Fireclays are associated with the lighter colours such as the grays and buffs. Ordinary clays and shales are associated with the red ranges. By regulating the oxidizing conditions in the kiln, browns, purples, and blacks can be obtained. The process is known as flashing, and in general the change of colour of the bricks is only on the surface, the body of the unit retaining its natural colour. Some metals, such as manganese, are mixed with the clays to develop special colours.

Applied colours

      Colours are applied to many structural clay products, particularly structural glazed tile, wall and floor tile, and brick. Ceramic glazes are applied to units before or after the firing and cooling stage. If after, the units must be refired. These glazes provide almost all of the basic colours plus some special colours used for accent in the design of a wall. The glazes become an integral part of the face of the units since they are burned to the same degree of heat as the units. Finishes and colours other than ceramic glazes are applied to the units either fired or unfired and are surface coatings that conceal the natural colour of the burned unit. In some countries a demand for old brick has led to application of mixtures of cement or lime and sand and many other combinations to give brick an aged appearance.

Texture

      The texture of structural clay products is directly associated with the manufacturing processes. The soft-mud process produces either a sand- or water-struck finish in a nonuniform texture, which gives the brick (only bricks are made under this process) the appearance of handmade or antique brick. The dry-press process, using steel molds, gives a smooth texture only. This process is seldom used in modern-day brick production but is used in the manufacture of quarry tile as well as floor and wall tile.

      The stiff-mud process offers the most possibilities for texturing brick. As the prepared clay is extruded through the die, the pressure produces a smooth surface similar to that of concrete when smoothed with a steel trowel. This surface is called the die skin; its removal and further treatment produce other textures. In wire cutting, for instance, a wire placed in front of the column of clay as it comes from the die removes the die skin, creating a semi-rough surface. In sand finishing, sand is applied to the column of clay by various means to give a very even surface of sand, which is fired into the unit. The desired texture is similar to a wood-mold brick except that the unit is much more uniform in size and in finish. Colour also may be changed by the type of sand used.

      Scored finishing is used mostly on tile where the surface of the tile is grooved to give a better bond between the unit and plaster. This is also true of a roughened or combed finish produced by wire brushing or scratching. Roughened finishing is used when the die skin is removed by various means. In one method the material cut in removing the die skin may be rolled back into the face of the unit. Other finishes are applied by rollers on the column to give certain effects such as bark, log, or emblems.

       terra-cotta for architectural decoration is both machine-extruded and handmade (molded or pressed). It is distinguished from other clay products by the generally larger size of the units. It may be hand-carved and used mostly in murals as bas-relief. Both natural and glazed finishes are produced.

Uses of brick and tile

      By far the largest use of brick and tile products is, as it always has been, in building construction. Another significant application is in drainage systems. Both applications are described in this section.

Building construction

      It may be roughly accurate to say that about 65 percent of all the brick in the world goes into dwellings, and 35 percent goes into commercial, industrial, and institutional buildings. Construction techniques change yearly and from country to country, but basically most brick and tile are used in walls (wall), with lesser use in roofs and floors.

Walls

      Walls may be classified in three general categories: load-bearing, non-load-bearing, and veneer.

Load-bearing walls

      A load-bearing wall supports the loads of a structure, such as floors, equipment, furniture, and people. At one time buildings were constructed with very thick brick walls carrying all floor and other loads. Design of these walls was not based on engineering data but only on well-intentioned but unscientific building codes. As buildings grew taller, the building code requirements for thickness of a brick wall became economically prohibitive. The last truly high-rise, load-bearing brick structure built under older codes was the Monadnock Building in Chicago (1889–91), 16 stories tall with the brick walls 2 metres (6 feet) thick at the base, tapering to 30 centimetres (12 inches) at the top story. The arrival of structural steel on the building scene put a temporary end to the brick bearing-wall skyscraper, but research conducted in the 20th century has led to a resurgence. Thinner walls can be designed for high-rise buildings and built safely at a reasonable cost. Apartment buildings in Switzerland, Germany, Denmark, England, and other countries have risen 15 or more stories supported by brick bearing walls no more than 30 centimetres thick. The use of reinforced brickwork (a combination of brick, reinforcing steel, mortar, and cement grout) permits even thinner walls.

      Bearing walls may be classified into five general groups: (1) brick, including brick tied together with cross brick (headers) or with metal ties; (2) composite walls of brick and tile tied together with headers or metal ties; (3) cavity walls, in which the inner and outer wythes (tiers) of units are tied together with metal ties but separated by an air space usually two or more inches in width; (4) reinforced walls, similar to cavity walls except that steel is placed in the cavity and the cavity filled with a soupy mortar (grout); (5) single unit walls, using a unit of necessary thickness to meet design requirements.

Non-load-bearing walls

      Non-load-bearing walls carry only their own weight and may be any one of the types discussed under load-bearing walls. This type of wall is used to close in a steel or concrete frame building. It is usually carried by supports, normally steel shelf angles at each floor, and is called a panel wall. When the wall is supported at the base only, it is called a curtain wall.

veneer walls

      Veneer walls are similar to non-load-bearing walls in that they carry no weight except their own. The brick or tile is fastened to a backing, but it does not exert a common action with the backing. Perhaps the most common use is brick veneer on wood frame dwellings. Other examples are architectural terra-cotta and thin ceramic veneer on monumental buildings.

Roofs

      Tile roofs are popular in the Mediterranean area and in the Low Countries of western Europe. In Italy craftsmen have developed an art of using relatively thin tile to form self-supporting arches. Tile roofs in many other areas, particularly on residences, have been used extensively in the past, but economic considerations limit their use now; in addition to the cost of the tile is the cost of roof framing to support the heavier weight of the tile.

Miscellaneous

      Miscellaneous uses in building construction include retaining walls (retaining wall), brick floors, patios, and walks. Most of these uses are decorative as well as utilitarian. The retaining wall of reinforced brick provides an economical means of restraining earth movement and at the same time maintains a continuity of architectural effect, particularly if the adjoining structure is built of brick.

      Brick floors, patios (patio), and walks utilize the physical properties of brick, such as resistance to abrasion and to the elements. Paving brick, per se, is practically nonexistent, except for replacement where roads and streets were brick-paved long ago. Industrial floor brick, however, supplies many industries whose manufacturing and handling processes require floors that resist acids and provide a high degree of resistance to abrasion. Brick floors and patios, besides providing a long-lasting, low-maintenance material, offer the designer a medium for developing architectural effects in both colours and patterns.

Structural clay drainage products

      Sewer pipe plays an important part in the world's ecology. An almost impervious material because of its firing, denseness, and glazing, it can carry highly corrosive waste materials that few other products can handle economically.

      Drain tile performs a service that ensures a higher yield in farm production of food throughout the world. Many farming areas are plagued with too much water at the wrong times. Drain tile reduces the water level during these times, thereby allowing the root growth of plants to penetrate deeper into the soil, which, in turn, permits them later to resist hot dry weather.

Nonclay brick and tile

      Following the introduction of portland (portland cement) cement in the 19th century, a growing number of products have appeared that resemble clay products in size and intended use. In some countries the production of them, if reduced to brick equivalents, exceeds that of clay products. A brief review of these products, the material used, and the manufacturing processes may serve to suggest the interrelation between these and clay products.

concrete block

      Concrete block is a large unit, usually 8 inches high, 16 inches long, and of various thicknesses, made from a mixture of cement and an aggregate, which may be cinders, limestone, or expanded clay or shale (burned in a rotary kiln). The mixture of cement, aggregate, and a minimum of water is placed in steel molds and vibrated to compact the mixture. The formed units are removed from the molds and cured either in air, steam, or under autoclaving processes (steam under pressure).

Concrete brick

      Concrete brick is a mixture of cement and aggregate, usually sand, formed in molds and cured. Certain mineral colours are added to produce a concrete brick resembling clay. Concrete pipe is made of cement and aggregate and cured as above. Used as a substitute for clay sewer pipe, it does not have as much resistance to the corrosive action of certain acids. Concrete drain tile and concrete roofing tile are produced similarly.

Sand-lime brick

      Sand-lime brick is a product that uses lime instead of cement. It is usually a white brick made of lime and selected sands, cast in molds and cured. Production is limited, with greater use in the United States and Germany.

Additional Reading

Harry C. Plummer, Brick and Tile Engineering, 2nd ed. (1962), is a comprehensive technical publication on brick manufacturing, sizes, design, and uses. Bernd Foerster, Man and Masonry (1960), is a brief pictorial presentation of masonry structures over time as related to the human environment. Technical Notes on Brick Construction (irregular), published by the Brick Institute of America, covers all phases of brick and tile production and use. Historical aspects are examined in two articles in National Geographic Magazine: E.A. Speiser and H.M. Herbert, “Ancient Mesopotamia: A Light Did Not Fail,” 99(1):41–105 (January 1951), on the ancient use of brick with references to brickmaking; and Stuart E. Jones and Winfield Parks, “When in Rome . . . ,” 137(6):741–789 (June 1970), illustrating the history of masonry, including construction during Hadrian's reign and the brick dome on the Pantheon.A good introduction to ceramics in general is provided by David W. Richerson, Modern Ceramic Engineering: Properties, Processing, and Use in Design, 2nd ed., rev. and expanded (1992). The processing of traditional ceramics is described in F.H. Norton, Elements of Ceramics, 2nd ed. (1974); James S. Reed, Introduction to the Principles of Ceramic Processing (1988); George Y. Onoda, Jr., and Larry L. Hench, Ceramic Processing Before Firing (1978); and in four sections of Theodore J. Reinhart (ed.), Engineered Materials Handbook, vol. 4, Ceramics and Glasses, ed. by Samuel J. Schneider (1991): “Ceramic Powders and Processing,” pp. 41–122; “Forming and Predensification, and Nontraditional Densification Processes,” pp. 123–241; “Firing/Sintering: Densification,” pp. 242–312; and “Final Shaping and Surface Finishing,” pp. 313–376.James A. Lee Thomas O. Mason Ed.

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