Breton literature

Introduction

      the body of writings in the Breton language of northwestern France.

Medieval poetry and drama

      No literary texts in Old Breton have survived. An 11th-century poem translated from Breton into Latin demonstrates a strong similarity with Old Welsh epic poetry; attributed to a monk, Ingomar, it was written in honour of the Breton king Judikael.

      Early Middle Breton literature, of the 12th through the 14th century, has survived only in translation, especially in works in French by Marie De France, who ascribes a Breton origin to some of her lais (lai). Middle English and Middle French texts also include works originally written in Middle Breton. Middle Welsh stories are thought to be part of the heritage of Breton literature.

      Most notable of the works that exist in Middle Breton are three poems that use traditional metre: "Tremenvan an itron guerches Maria" (“The Passion of Our Lady the Virgin Mary”), "Pemzek levenez Maria" (“The 15 Joys of Mary”), and "Buhez mab-den" (“The Life of Man”). A 4,000-verse Middle Breton poem that is also traditionally rhymed, known by the French title Le Miroir de la mort (“The Mirror of Death”), is a meditation on death and the hereafter. Religious songs were also preserved in Nouelou ancien ha devot (1650; “Old and Pious Carols”). The prose work Buhez an itron sanctes Cathell (1576; “The Life of Lady Saint Catherine”) opened the way to the many later editions of Buhez ar sent (“Lives of the Saints”). A few books for religious practice and education are extant, such as the Gonfession (1612; “Confessional”) by Euzen Gueguen and the Am mirouer a gonfession (1621; “The Mirror of Confession”). Only one nonreligious text in Middle Breton is known: Dialog etre Arzur, roe d'an Bretounet, ha Guynglaff (1450; “Dialogue Between Arthur, King of the Bretons, and Guynglaff”). The widespread use in this period's written works of French words, which were alien to everyday Breton speech, must be ascribed to the fact that Breton was not used or formally studied in Roman Catholic seminaries in Brittany.

      While Middle Breton poetry, with the exception of carols, was meant to be read silently, another form of literature developed during this period that was to be declaimed to an audience: dramatic literature. The most notable plays in Middle Breton are Burzud bras Jesuz (“The Great Mystery of Jesus”), Buhez santez Nonn (“The Life of Saint Nonn”), and Buhez santez Barba (“The Life of Saint Barbara”). This genre persisted until the end of the 19th century, notwithstanding church opposition and legal prohibition. These plays, of which over 300 manuscripts exist, evolved with Breton society and were continually acted before enthusiastic audiences, often for the purposes of entertainment and education.

Romanticism and the revival of oral literature

      The European Romantic movement (Romanticism) prompted French-educated Breton intellectuals to pay attention to oral literature. First to be collected were poems that, in accordance with tradition, were sung. They were—and are still today—classified as gwersiou, sonioù, or kanennoù (also called kantikoù). Gwersiou deal with crime and violence, historical events, and otherworldly encounters (whether pagan, in the form of fairies, or Christian, in the form of saints and the Virgin Mary). Sonioù are more homely: they focus on love stories, scenes of nature, and work and joy in farmers' lives. Kanennoù are religious, about saints and death, and were sung mostly at wakes.

      In 1839 Théodore Hersart de La Villemarqué published Barzaz Breiz, a collection of purportedly ancient Breton folk songs and ballads. Its appearance marked a new literary era. It was twice enlarged, in 1845 and 1867, and was republished in its final form through the end of the 20th century. First hailed as a masterpiece, the book was later severely attacked for including poems that, critics claimed, were inauthentic.

      One of La Villemarqué's adversaries was François Luzel, himself a collector not only of Breton poetry but also of tales. His collections consist of two books of gwersiou (1868 and 1874) and two books of sonioù (both 1890; coedited with Anatole Le Bras), almost the whole of the material originating from the Tregor district of Brittany. (Fifty years later the tunes were copied down by Fransez Vallée and Maurice Duhamel, who also sometimes used audio equipment to record them.) Luzel is the best-known collector of Breton tales; he did not, however, keep the Breton texts of most of them. Gabriel Milin also collected tales during the 19th century and published his texts with translations. A number of Breton texts in the large collection assembled by Jean-Marie de Penguern during the first half of the 19th century and kept in the National Library in Paris were later edited and published in periodicals.

The new literature of the 19th and early 20th centuries

      As the collection of traditional Breton literature continued throughout the 19th century, original writing in Breton gave life to a new literature. Luzel was one of the prominent poets of the period, as was Jean-Marie Le Joubioux, who wrote in the Gwened (Vannes) dialect. Childhood memories, life in the countryside, love of homeland and language, and platonic love inspired many poems. Stories and romances, in the style of traditional tales, were also abundantly produced. These works are valued today for the quality of their language and their quietly pleasant narratives. Throughout the 19th century, drama—whether traditional or newly composed plays—never ceased to attract audiences. Religious writing in prose was also thriving, and religion inspired poetry in the form of kanennoù, such as the popular saga Emgann Kergidu (1877; “The Battle of Kergidu”) by Alan Inizan.

      During the 19th and early 20th centuries, writers gathered around Breton-language periodicals. Feiz ha Breiz, edited by Yann-Vari Perrot, drew mostly clerical authors, while the Gwened-dialect Dihunamb centred on the work of Loeiz Herrieu, a poet, prose writer, and collector of folk songs who is best known for his memoir of World War I. Other periodicals were Kroaz ar Vretoned—with which Erwan ar Moal, a poet and prose writer, and Fransez Vallée, a memorialist, were associated—and Ar Vro, among whose contributors was the poet François Taldir-Jaffrennou. The sombre poet Y.-B. Kalloc'h, who disappeared during World War I, and the playwright Tangi Malmanche—both of them modern in thought and style—gained prominence near the turn of the 20th century. Vallée, who was also a lexicographer, worked toward the modernization of Breton and a system of unified spelling, as did Émile Ernault and Meven Mordiern (pseudonym of René Leroux).

The Gwalarn movement

      World War I marked the arrival of another new era for Breton literature, not least because of the significant number of Breton speakers killed during the war. Writers shifted away from old Breton models and showed a new openness to the influence of other literatures. This movement began in the mid-1920s with the creation of the periodical Gwalarn (“Northwest”). Most of the authors associated with it were well-read in several languages and looked for models in contemporary European literatures. They produced poems, short stories, novels, and plays; they also translated literary works into Breton. Roparz Hemon, Jakez Riou, Youenn Drezen, and Abeozen (pseudonym of Fañch Elies)—the founders of Gwalarn—were among the most successful and prolific authors of the period. From Hemon's Pirc'hirin ar mor (1943; “A Pilgrim to the Sea”) may be dated the awakening of a new poetry. Maodez Glanndour left his mark on Breton poetry with Imram (1941) and Milc'hwid ar serr-noz (1946; “The Twilight Thrush”).

After World War II

      Publishing in Breton experienced some difficulties in the years following World War II. The first to give life again to literary expression were Ronan Huon, Per Denez, and Per Diolier (pseudonym of Per Le Bihan), who established their reputations as, variously, poets, short-story writers, novelists, and essayists. They also founded the periodical Al Liamm (“The Bond”). Brud (“Vogue”; later renamed Brud Nevez [“New Vogue”]) was a subsequent journal. Memoirs became popular, including those of Yeun ar Gow (E skeud tour bras sant Jermen [1955; “In the Shade of the High Steeple of Saint German”]), Jarl Priel (Va zammig buhez [1954; “My Own Small Life”]). Taldir-Jaffrennou also wrote a memoir in which he recounted his activities in the Breton movement. Oral life stories were published frequently during the second half of the 20th century.

      A growing number of writers expanded the scope of Breton literature as the 20th century progressed. Yann Gerven wrote humorous stories, and Youenn Gwernig published poems that he performed with guitar accompaniment. Using his own acting company, Strollad ar Vro-bagan, Goulc'han Kervella staged his own and others' plays. Several other Breton-language acting companies came into existence in the last decades of the 20th century. Books for children were also plentiful, and translation was in good health. Mikael Madeg wrote works in a number of genres. Anjela Duval was a prominent poet, while Per-Jakez Helias, a poet and playwright, became best known for a memoir translated into English as The Horse of Pride (1978).

      By the close of the 20th century, Breton literature had become largely urban in theme and language. Much activity was devoted to creating a vocabulary adapted to modern life, and many of the writers concerned with doing so gathered around the periodical Preder. A state-sponsored body, Ofis ar Brezhoneg (“Office of the Breton Language”), was founded in 1999 to maintain order as the language expanded. Breton literature showed itself on an upward trend as it entered the 21st century.

Per Denez

Additional Reading

Most general-reference works on Breton literature exist only in Breton or French. Breton poetry in English translation can be found in Thomas Rain Crowe (ed.), Writing the Wind: A Celtic Resurgence (1997).

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