blood disease

Introduction

      any disease of the blood, involving the red blood cells (erythrocytes (erythrocyte)), white blood cells (leukocytes (leukocyte)), or platelets (platelet) (thrombocytes) or the tissues in which these elements are formed—the bone marrow, lymph nodes (lymph node), and spleen—or of bleeding and blood clotting.

      Long before the nature and composition of blood were known, a variety of symptoms were attributed to disordered blood. Red blood cells were not recognized until the 17th century, and it was another 100 years before one of the types of white blood cells, the lymphocyte, and the clotting of blood ( coagulation) were described. In the 19th century other forms of leukocytes were discovered, and a number of diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs were distinguished. Morphological changes—the changes in form and structure—that take place in the blood during disease and the signs and symptoms of the various blood diseases were described in the 19th century and the first quarter of the 20th century. In the years that followed, a more physiological approach began to develop, concerned with the mechanisms underlying the development of blood disease and with the ways in which abnormalities might be corrected.

      Certain features of the physical examination are especially important in the diagnosis of blood disease. These include noting the presence or absence of pallor or, the opposite, an excess of colour; jaundice, red tongue, and enlargement of the heart, liver, spleen, or lymph nodes; small purple spots or larger bruises on the skin; and tenderness of the bones.

      Since the blood circulates throughout the body and carries nutritive substances as well as waste products, examination of it can be important in detecting the presence of disease. Examination of the blood may be considered in two categories: the analysis of the plasma (the noncellular portion of blood) and the study of the blood cells. Examination of the plasma includes measurement of plasma proteins, blood sugar ( glucose), salts (electrolytes (electrolyte)), lipids (lipid), enzymes (enzyme), urea, and various hormones (hormone). Such measurements also are useful in the identification of diseases that are not classified as blood diseases—e.g., diabetes (diabetes mellitus), kidney disease, and thyroid disease. Special studies of plasma or its components can be carried out to determine the status of blood clotting. Laboratory studies of blood cells particularly valuable in diagnosis of disease include (1) determination of the number and characteristics of red cells (i.e., the existence of anemia or polycythemia), (2) study of the number and proportions of types of white cells, and (3) enumeration of the blood platelets and a study of the blood-clotting process. Microscopic inspection of films of blood dried on glass slides and stained with aniline dyes allows observation of variations in the size and colour and other abnormalities of individual red cells and also permits examination of the white cells and platelets. It is sometimes necessary to examine bone marrow or a lymph node microscopically, and X-ray examinations may be necessary for the detection of organ or lymph node enlargement or bone abnormalities. More-unusual cases may require further examinations—e.g., special serological (serological test) (serum-related) or biochemical procedures or various measurements using radioactive isotopes to outline an organ or quantitate blood volume.

Disorders affecting red blood cells

      The quantity of red blood cells (erythrocyte) (erythrocytes (erythrocyte)) in normal persons varies with age and sex as well as with external conditions, primarily atmospheric pressure. At sea level an average man has 5.4 million red cells per cubic millimetre of blood. From the physiological standpoint, it is the quantity of hemoglobin in the blood that is important because this iron-containing protein is required for the transport of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Red cells carry an average of 16 grams of hemoglobin per 100 millilitres of blood. If such blood is centrifuged so that the red cells are packed in a special tube known as the hematocrit, they are found on the average to occupy 47 percent of the volume of the blood. In the average woman the normal figures are lower than this (red cell count 4.8 million; hemoglobin 14 grams; volume of packed red cells 42 percent). In the newborn infant these values are higher but decrease in the course of the first several weeks of postnatal life to levels below those of the normal woman; thereafter they rise gradually. The differences in male and female blood begin to appear at about the time of puberty.

      Red cells are formed within the marrow (bone marrow) cavities of the central bones of the adult skeleton (skull, spine, ribs, breastbone, pelvic bones). In a healthy person, red cell production (erythropoiesis) is so well adjusted to red cell destruction that the levels of red cells and hemoglobin remain constant. The rate of production of red cells by the bone marrow normally is controlled by a physiological feedback mechanism analogous to the thermostatic control of temperature in a room. The mechanism is triggered by a reduction of oxygen in the tissues ( hypoxia) and operates through the action of the hormone erythropoietin in the formation of which the kidney plays an important role. Erythropoietin is released and stimulates further erythropoiesis. When oxygen needs are satisfied, erythropoietin production is reduced and red cell production diminishes.

      In disease, as well as in certain situations in which physiological adjustments take place, the quantity of hemoglobin may be reduced below normal levels, a condition known as anemia, or may be increased above normal, leading to polycythemia (also called erythrocytosis).

anemia

      In anemia the blood is capable of carrying only a reduced amount of oxygen to tissues, a condition that stimulates the lungs to increase the respiratory rate in order to pick up more oxygen and the heart to increase its rate in order to increase the volume of blood delivered to the tissues. Anemia results when (1) the production of red cells and hemoglobin lags behind the normal rate of their destruction, (2) excessive destruction exceeds production, or (3) blood loss occurs. The bone marrow normally is capable of increasing production of red cells as much as sixfold to eightfold through an increased rate of development from their primitive precursors. Anemia ensues when the normal fine balance between production, destruction, and physiological loss is upset and erythropoiesis has not been accelerated to a degree sufficient to reestablish normal blood values. The bone marrow responds to increased destruction of red cells by increasing the rate of their production.

      Anemia varies in severity, and the tolerance of different persons for anemia varies greatly, depending in part upon the rate at which it has developed. When anemia has developed gradually, affected persons may endure severe grades of anemia with few or no symptoms, whereas rapidly developing anemia causes severe symptoms; if sufficiently severe and rapid in development, anemia can be fatal. The most noticeable symptom of anemia is usually pallor of the skin, mucous membranes, and nail beds. Persons whose anemia is due to increased destruction of red cells appear to be slightly jaundiced (jaundice).

      Failure of production of red cells may be caused by deficiency of certain essential materials, such as iron (iron deficiency anemia), folic acid (folic acid deficiency anemia), or 12 (vitamin B12). It may be due to other causes, such as the presence of certain types of disease—e.g., infection; damage of the bone marrow by ionizing radiation or by drugs or other chemical agents; or anatomical alterations in the bone marrow, as by leukemia or tumour metastases (migration of tumour cells to the marrow from distant sites of origin). Accelerated destruction of red cells may occur for any one of a large variety of causes (see the section Hemolytic anemias (blood disease)). Finally, blood loss may result from trauma or may be associated with a variety of diseases.

      Anemias are classified on morphological grounds. Macrocytic anemia, in which the average size of circulating red cells is larger than normal, results from impaired production of red cells—e.g., when vitamin B₁₂ or folic acid is lacking. In other circumstances—for example, when there is a deficiency of iron—the circulating red cells are smaller than normal and poorly filled with hemoglobin; this is called hypochromic microcytic anemia. In still other cases of anemia, there is no significant alteration in the size, shape, or coloration of the red cells, a condition called normocytic anemia.

      Diagnosis of the type of anemia is based on the patient history and physical examination, which may reveal an underlying cause, and on examination of the blood. The latter includes measurement of the degree of anemia and microscopic study of the red cells. If the number of red cells, the hemoglobin concentration of the blood, and the volume of packed red cells are known, the mean volume and hemoglobin content can be calculated. The mean corpuscular volume (MCV) normally is 82 to 92 cubic micrometres, and about one-third of this is hemoglobin (mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, or MCHC, normally is 32 to 36 percent). If determined accurately, the MCV and the MCHC are useful indexes of the nature of an anemia. Accurate diagnosis is essential before treatment is attempted because, just as the causes differ widely, the treatment of anemia differs from one patient to another. Indiscriminate treatment by the use of hematinics (drugs that stimulate production of red cells or hemoglobin) can be dangerous.

Megaloblastic anemias

      Megaloblastic anemia, the production in the bone marrow of abnormal nucleated red cells known as megaloblasts, develops as the result of dietary deficiency of, faulty absorption of, or increased demands for vitamin B₁₂ or folic acid. When such a vitamin deficiency occurs, bone marrow activity is seriously impaired; marrow cells proliferate but do not mature properly, and erythropoiesis becomes largely ineffective. Anemia develops, the number of young red cells (reticulocytes) is reduced, and even the numbers of granulocytes (white cells that contain granules in the cellular substance outside the nucleus) and platelets are decreased. The mature red cells that are formed from megaloblasts are larger than normal, resulting in a macrocytic anemia. The impaired and ineffective erythropoiesis is associated with accelerated destruction of the red cells, thereby providing the features of a hemolytic anemia (caused by the destruction of red cells at a rate substantially greater than normal).

      12 (vitamin B12) is a red, cobalt-containing vitamin that is found in animal foods and is important in the synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA). A deficiency of vitamin B₁₂ leads to disordered production of DNA and hence to the impaired production of red cells. Unlike other vitamins, it is formed not by higher plants but only by certain bacteria and molds and in the rumen (first stomach chamber) of sheep and cattle, provided that traces of cobalt are present in their fodder. In humans, vitamin B₁₂ must be obtained passively, by eating food of an animal source. Furthermore, this vitamin is not absorbed efficiently from the human intestinal tract unless a certain secretion of the stomach, intrinsic factor, is available to bind with vitamin B₁₂.

      The most common cause of vitamin B₁₂ deficiency is pernicious anemia, a condition mostly affecting elderly persons. In this disorder the stomach does not secrete intrinsic factor, perhaps as the result of an immune process consisting of the production of antibodies directed against the stomach lining. The tendency to form such antibodies may be hereditary. Patients with pernicious anemia are given monthly injections of vitamin B₁₂. Oral treatment with the vitamin is possible but inefficient because absorption is poor.

      Other forms of vitamin B₁₂ deficiency are rare. They are seen in complete vegetarians (vegetarianism) (vegans) whose diets lack vitamin B₁₂, in persons whose stomachs have been completely removed and so lack a source of intrinsic factor, in those who are infected with the fish tapeworm Diphyllobothrium latum or have intestinal cul-de-sacs or partial obstructions where competition by the tapeworms or by bacteria for vitamin B₁₂ deprives the host, and in persons with primary intestinal diseases that affect the absorptive capacity of the small intestine (ileum). In these conditions, additional nutritional deficiencies, such as of folic acid and iron, are also likely to develop.

      Blood changes similar to those occurring in vitamin B₁₂ deficiency result from deficiency of folic acid (folic acid deficiency anemia). folic acid (folate) is a vitamin found in leafy vegetables, but it is also synthesized by certain intestinal bacteria. Deficiency usually is the result of a highly defective diet or of chronic intestinal malabsorption as mentioned above. Pregnancy greatly increases the need for this vitamin. There is also an increased demand in cases of chronic accelerated production of red cells. This type of deficiency also has been observed in some patients receiving anticonvulsant drugs, and there is some evidence that absorption of the vitamin may be impaired in these cases. Often several factors affecting supply and demand of the vitamin play a role in producing folic acid deficiency. Unless folic acid deficiency is complicated by the presence of intestinal or liver disease, its treatment rarely requires more than the institution of a normal diet. In any event the oral administration of folic acid relieves the megaloblastic anemia. Some effect can be demonstrated even in pernicious anemia, but this treatment is not safe because the nervous system is not protected against the effects of vitamin B₁₂ deficiency, and serious damage to the nervous system may occur unless vitamin B₁₂ is given.

      In addition to the above conditions, megaloblastic anemia may arise in still other situations. Selective vitamin B₁₂ malabsorption may be the consequence of a hereditary defect. Deranged metabolism may play a role in some instances of megaloblastic anemia that accompany pregnancy. Metabolic antagonism is thought to be the mechanism underlying the megaloblastic anemia associated with the use of certain anticonvulsant drugs and some drugs employed in the treatment of leukemia and other forms of cancer. In fact, one of the earliest drugs used to treat leukemia was a folic acid antagonist.

Normocytic normochromic anemias

      Forms of anemia in which the average size and hemoglobin content of the red blood cells are within normal limits are called normocytic normochromic anemias. Usually microscopic examination of the red cells shows them to be much like normal cells. In other cases there may be marked variations in size and shape, but these are such as to equalize one another, thus resulting in normal average values. The normocytic anemias are a miscellaneous group, by no means as homogeneous as the megaloblastic anemias.

      Anemia caused by the sudden loss of blood is necessarily normocytic at first, since the cells that remain in the circulation are normal. The blood loss stimulates increased production, and the young cells that enter the blood in response are larger than those already present in the blood. If the young cells are present in sufficient number, the anemia temporarily becomes macrocytic (but not megaloblastic). Treatment of anemia caused by sudden blood loss includes transfusion (blood transfusion).

      A common form of anemia is that occurring in association with various chronic infections and in a variety of chronic systemic diseases. As a rule the anemia is not severe, although the anemia associated with chronic renal insufficiency (defective functioning of the kidneys) may be extremely so. Most normocytic anemias appear to be the result of impaired production of red cells, and in renal failure there is a deficiency of erythropoietin, the factor in the body that normally stimulates red cell production. In these states, the life span of the red cell in the circulation may be slightly shortened, but the cause of the anemia is failure of red cell production. The anemia associated with chronic disorders is characterized by abnormally low levels of iron in the plasma and excessive quantities in the reticuloendothelial (reticuloendothelial system) cells (cells whose function is ingestion and destruction of other cells and of foreign particles) of the bone marrow. Successful treatment depends on eliminating or relieving the underlying disorder.

      The mild anemias associated with deficiencies of anterior pituitary (pituitary gland), thyroid (thyroid gland), adrenocortical, or testicular hormones usually are normocytic. As in the case of anemia associated with chronic infections or various systemic diseases, the symptoms usually are those of the underlying condition, although sometimes anemia may be the most prominent sign. Unless complicated by deficiencies of vitamin B₁₂ or iron, these anemias are cured by appropriate treatment with the deficient hormone.

      Invasion of bone marrow by cancer cells carried by the bloodstream, if sufficiently great, is accompanied by anemia, usually normocytic in type but associated with abnormalities of both red and white cells. It is thought that such anemia is due to impaired production of red cells through mechanical interference. Whether this is true or not, a characteristic sign in the peripheral blood is the appearance of many irregularities in the size and shape of the red cells and of nucleated red cells; these young cells normally never leave the bone marrow but appear when the structure of the marrow is distorted by invading cells.

      In aplastic anemia the normally red marrow becomes fatty and yellow and fails to form enough of its three cellular products—red cells, white cells, and platelets. Anemia with few or no reticulocytes, reduced levels of the types of white cells formed in the bone marrow (granulocytes), and reduced platelets in the blood are characteristic of this condition. Manifestations of aplastic anemia are related to these deficiencies and include weakness, increased susceptibility to infections, and bleeding. In some cases the onset of aplastic anemia has been found to have been preceded by exposure to such organic chemicals as benzol, insecticides (insecticide), or a variety of drugs, especially the antibiotic chloramphenicol. While it is well established that certain agents may produce aplastic anemia, most persons exposed to these agents do not develop the disease, and most persons with aplastic anemia have no clear history of exposure to such agents. There are other agents that produce aplastic anemia in a predictable way. These include some of the chemotherapeutic agents used in the treatment of cancer, lymphoma, and leukemia, as well as radiation treatment (radiation therapy) for these diseases. Because of this fact, blood counts are frequently checked and doses of drugs or radiation are modified in patients being treated. Withdrawal of medication is followed by recovery of the bone marrow in such cases. On the other hand, in those patients who develop aplastic anemia as a result of exposure to other toxic agents, cessation of exposure may not result in recovery of the marrow, or at best the marrow may be indolent and incomplete.

      Treatment of aplastic anemia is a twofold process. First, complications of the disease must be treated: infection calls for vigorous treatment with antibiotics; symptoms due to anemia call for red cell transfusions; bleeding calls for platelet transfusions. Second, efforts should be directed toward inducing bone marrow recovery. Based on the hypothesis that one of the mechanisms of production of the aplastic anemia is autoimmunity, medication to suppress the immune response, such as the administration of antithymocyte globulin, is occasionally successful. An important and effective treatment is transplantation of bone marrow from a normal, compatible donor, usually a sibling. This treatment is limited by the availability of compatible donors and also by the fact that the recipient is increasingly prone to serious complications with advancing age.

Hypochromic microcytic anemias

      Hypochromic microcytic anemias, characterized by the presence in the circulating blood of red cells that are smaller than normal and poorly filled with hemoglobin, fall into two main categories. The first is a result of a deficiency of iron, and the second is a result of impaired production of hemoglobin; in either case there is an inadequate amount of the final product in the red cell.

      Iron deficiency (iron deficiency anemia) is the most common cause of anemia throughout the world. iron is required for hemoglobin formation; if the supply is insufficient to produce normal quantities of hemoglobin, the bone marrow ultimately is forced to produce cells that are smaller than normal and poorly filled with hemoglobin. Iron is derived from the diet and absorbed in the intestinal tract. Once in the body, it is retained and used over and over again, only minimal amounts being lost through shedding of cells from the skin and the exposed membranes and, in the female, through normal menstruation. In the adult the body content is approximately 3.7 grams of iron, of which more than half is hemoglobin. In the male there is virtually no further need for iron. Deficiency results if the dietary supplies of iron are insufficient to meet the needs; if absorption is faulty, as in malabsorption disorders; or if blood loss is occurring. Common causes of iron deficiency are excessive menstrual loss in women and bleeding peptic ulcer in men. Iron deficiency is common in infancy and childhood because demands are great for the ever-expanding pool of circulating hemoglobin in the growing body, and in pregnancy when the fetus must be supplied with iron. Hookworm (hookworm disease) infestation is a common cause of iron deficiency where conditions for the worm are favourable, because the intestinal blood loss caused by the myriad of worms attached to the wall is great.

      Persons with iron-deficiency anemia (iron deficiency anemia) are pale but not jaundiced. The deficiency of iron-containing enzymes in the tissues, if sufficiently great, results in a smooth tongue; brittle, flattened fingernails; and lustreless hair. Under the name of chlorosis, this type of anemia was mentioned in popular literature and depicted in paintings, especially those of the Dutch masters, until the 20th century. Although it is not necessarily less common now, there is no doubt that it is less severe in Europe and North America than it once was. The only treatment required is oral administration of iron salts in some palatable form, such as ferrous sulfate.

      Small red blood cells poorly filled with hemoglobin are characteristic of a hereditary disorder of hemoglobin formation, thalassemia, that is common among Mediterranean peoples and is discussed below. With the exception of iron deficiency and thalassemia, hypochromic microcytic anemia is rare. It is seen in anemia responsive to 6 (vitamin B6) (pyridoxine), where the anemia probably results from a metabolic fault in the synthesis of the heme portion of hemoglobin. Sideroblastic anemia, characterized by the presence in the bone marrow of nucleated red blood cells, the nucleus of which is surrounded by a ring of iron granules (ringed sideroblasts) and by a proportion of small, pale red cells in the blood, is of unknown cause and difficult to treat.

Hemolytic anemias

      Destruction of red cells at a rate substantially greater than normal, if not compensated for by accelerated red cell production, causes hemolytic anemia. Increased red cell destruction is recognized by demonstrating increased quantities of the pigmentary products of their destruction, such as bilirubin and urobilinogen, in the blood plasma, urine, and feces and by evidence of accelerated erythropoiesis, such as an increase in the number of young cells (reticulocytes) in the blood. When blood cell destruction is extremely rapid or occurs in the blood vessels, free hemoglobin is found in the urine (hemoglobinuria). Treatment varies with the cause of the hemolytic anemia.

      There are two principal causes of hemolytic anemia: (1) inherently defective red cells and (2) an environment hostile to red cells. Abnormalities within the red cell are usually congenital and hereditary. They are exemplified by diseases in which the cell membrane is weakened, cell metabolism is defective, or hemoglobin is abnormal.

       hereditary spherocytosis is the most common disease involving the red cell membrane. It is characterized by the presence of red cells that appear small, stain densely for hemoglobin, and look nearly spherical. Such cells are mechanically fragile and readily swell up and burst in dilute salt solution. In the body they break up when deprived of free access to plasma glucose. The abnormality is aggravated by a tendency for the cells to remain longer than usual in the spleen because of their spheroidal shape. The corpuscular defect may appear if it is inherited from either parent (it is caused by a dominant gene). The anemia varies in severity. It may be so mild as to pass unnoticed for years, but it may suddenly become severe—e.g., when an incidental respiratory infection briefly suppresses the accelerated production of red cells necessary to meet the constantly increased rate of their destruction. Parvovirus is known to cause this transient cessation of erythropoiesis, and the development of severe anemia under these circumstances is termed aplastic crisis. Removal of the spleen, which always is enlarged, cures the anemia by eliminating the site of sequestration and destruction of the red blood cells but does not prevent hereditary transmission of the disease.

      Red cells metabolize glucose by breaking it down to lactic acid either via an anaerobic (oxygenless) pathway or by oxidation through a pathway called the pentose phosphate pathway. The anaerobic pathway, the main route of metabolism, provides energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Deficiencies of enzymes (enzyme) such as pyruvate kinase in this pathway shorten red cell survival times because energy-requiring activities within the red cell are curtailed. Deficiencies of enzymes in the anaerobic pathway are generally relevant only when they are homozygous (i.e., when the deficiency is inherited from each parent on an autosomal chromosome and is therefore expressed). Abnormalities also have been discovered in the alternative process of glucose metabolism, the pentose phosphate pathway. Deficiency of the first enzyme in the pathway, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency) (G-6-PD), is rather common. This deficiency results in destruction of red cells ( hemolysis). G-6-PD deficiency occurs in 10 to 14 percent of African Americans; the defect is harmless unless the person is exposed to certain drugs, such as certain antimalarial compounds (e.g., primaquine) and sulfonamides (sulfonamide). The full effect of the deficiency is rarely observed in females because the gene is sex-linked (i.e., carried on the X chromosome), and only rarely do both X chromosomes carry the abnormal gene. Males, on the other hand, have only one X chromosome and thus only one gene available, and therefore the deficiency is fully expressed if it is inherited on the X chromosome from the mother. Another variety of G-6-PD deficiency is especially frequent in persons of Mediterranean descent.

      Hemolytic anemia can also result as the consequence of an environment hostile to the red cell. Certain chemical agents destroy red cells whenever sufficient amounts are given (e.g., phenylhydrazine); others are harmful only to persons whose red cells are sensitive to the action of the agent. A number of toxic drugs are oxidants or are transformed into oxidizing substances in the body. Injury may be accidental, as with moth ball ( naphthalene) ingestion in children, or it may be the undesirable effect of a drug used therapeutically. Individual sensitivity is of several kinds. Certain patients are susceptible to oxidant drugs such as antimalarial compounds mentioned above. This is attributable to a sex-linked, inherited deficiency of the enzyme G-6-PD. In other instances, sensitivity is on an immunologic basis (e.g., hemolytic anemia caused by administration of penicillin or quinidine). The anemia develops rapidly over a few days and may be fatal without transfusions.

      A long-recognized type of hemolytic anemia is that associated with the transfusion (blood transfusion) of incompatible red cells. Antibodies (antibody) to the substances alpha- and beta-isoagglutinin, which occur naturally in the blood, destroy the donor red cells when incompatible blood is given by transfusion. Besides the best-known blood groups (blood group)—A, B, and O—there are other groups to which a person may develop antibodies that will cause transfusion reactions. The rhesus (Rh blood group system) (Rh) and Kell groups are examples. In erythroblastosis fetalis (hemolytic disease of the newborn), the destruction of fetal blood by that of the mother may be due to Rh or ABO incompatibility. The events that take place are, first, the passage of incompatible red cells from the fetus into the circulation of the mother through a break in the placental blood vessels, then development of antibodies in the mother, and, finally, passage of these antibodies into the fetus, with consequent hemolysis, anemia, and jaundice.

      A form of hemolytic anemia that is relatively common depends on the formation of antibodies within the patient's body against his own red cells (autoimmune hemolytic anemia). This may occur in association with the presence of certain diseases, but it is often seen without other illness. Trapping of the red cells by the spleen is thought to depend on the fact that, when brought into contact with reticuloendothelial cells, red cells coated with incomplete (nonhemolytic) antibody adhere, become spherical, are ingested (phagocytosed), and break down.

      Such anemias may be severe but often can be controlled by the administration of adrenocorticosteroids (corticoid) (which interfere with the destructive process) and treatment of the underlying disease, if one is present. In a number of instances, splenectomy—removal of the spleen—is necessary and is usually partially or wholly effective in relieving the anemia. The effectiveness of splenectomy is attributed to the removal of the organ in which red cells, coated with antibody, are selectively trapped and destroyed.

      Other varieties of hemolytic anemia include that associated with mechanical trauma, such as that produced by the impact of red cells on artificial heart valves, excessive heat, and infectious agents (e.g., the organism causing malaria).

thalassemia and hemoglobinopathies

       hemoglobin is composed of a porphyrin compound (heme) and globin. Normal adult hemoglobin (Hb A) consists of globin containing two pairs of polypeptide chains, alpha (α) and beta (β). A minor fraction of normal adult hemoglobin consists of Hb A₂, which contains α- and delta- (δ-) chains. A different hemoglobin (Hb F) is present in fetal life and possesses a pair of the same α-chains as does Hb A, but the second set contains gamma- (γ-) chains. In normal hemoglobin the order in which the amino acids follow one another in the polypeptide chain is always exactly the same. Abnormalities in the globin chains can lead to disease.

      In thalassemia it is thought that a primary genetic mutation results in reduction in the rate at which α-, β-, or δ-chains are manufactured, the chains being otherwise normal. The relative deficiency of one pair of chains and the resultant imbalance of chain pairs result in ineffective production of red blood cells, deficient hemoglobin production, microcytosis (small cells), and destruction of red cells (hemolysis). In sickle cell anemia and in other abnormalities of hemoglobin ( hemoglobinopathy), the substitution of one amino acid for another at a particular site in the chain is the underlying cause. The substitution of valyl for glutamyl in the sixth position of the β-chain, for example, results in the formation of Hb S (the hemoglobin of sickle cell disease) instead of Hb A. This variant hemoglobin is inherited as a Mendelian recessive trait. Thus, if only one parent transmits the gene for Hb S, the offspring inherits the trait but is harmed relatively little; the red cells contain more Hb A than Hb S. If the trait is inherited from both parents, the predominant hemoglobin in the red cell is Hb S; the serious and sometimes fatal disease sickle cell anemia is the consequence.

      Since the first characterization of the nature of Hb S by American chemist Linus Pauling (Pauling, Linus) and his associates in 1949, more than 100 variant hemoglobins have been identified. Fortunately, most variant hemoglobins are not sufficiently affected to alter their function, and therefore no observable illness occurs.

  sickle cell anemia (see figure—>) occurs almost exclusively in people of African descent. At least 8 percent of black Americans carry the sickle cell trait. The actual disease is less common (about 1 in 500 black Americans). In this condition most of the red cells in a sample of fresh blood look normally shaped—discoidal—until deprived of oxygen, when the characteristic sickle- or crescent-shaped forms with threadlike extremities appear. Reexposure to oxygen causes immediate reversion to the discoidal form. Sickle cell anemia is characterized by severe chronic anemia punctuated by painful crises, the latter due to blockage of the capillary beds in various organs by masses of sickled red cells. This gives rise to fever and episodic pains in the chest, abdomen, or joints that are difficult to distinguish from the effects of other diseases. While the many complications of the disease can be treated and pain relieved, there is no treatment to reverse or prevent the actual sickling process.

       thalassemia (Greek: “sea blood”) is so called because it was first discovered among peoples around the Mediterranean Sea, among whom its incidence is high. The thalassemias are another group of inherited disorders in which one or more of the polypeptide chains of globin are synthesized defectively. Thalassemia now is known also to be common in Thailand and elsewhere in the Far East. The red cells in this condition are unusually flat with central staining areas and for this reason have been called target cells. In the mild form of the disease, thalassemia minor, there is usually only slight or no anemia, and life expectancy is normal. Thalassemia major (Cooley anemia) is characterized by severe anemia, enlargement of the spleen, and body deformities associated with expansion of the bone marrow. The latter presumably represents a response to the need for greatly accelerated red cell production by genetically defective red cell precursors, which are relatively ineffective in producing mature red cells. Anemia is so severe that transfusions (blood transfusion) are often necessary; however, they are of only temporary value and lead to excessive iron in the tissues once the transfused red cells break down. The enlarged spleen may further aggravate the anemia by pooling and trapping the circulating red cells. Splenectomy may partially relieve the anemia but does not cure the disease.

      The defect in thalassemia may involve the β-chains of globin (β-thalassemia), the α-chains (α-thalassemia), the δ-chains (δ-thalassemia), or both δ- and β-chain synthesis. In the last (δ-β-thalassemia), Hb F concentrations usually are considerably elevated since the number of β-chains available to combine with α-chains is limited and γ-chain synthesis is not impaired. Beta-thalassemia comprises the majority of all thalassemias. A number of genetic mechanisms account for impaired production of β-chains, all of which result in inadequate supplies of messenger RNA (mRNA) available for proper synthesis of the β-chain at the ribosome. In some cases no mRNA is produced. Most defects have to do with production and processing of the RNA from the β-gene; in α-thalassemia, by contrast, the gene itself is deleted. There are normally two pairs of α-genes, and the severity of the anemia is determined by the number deleted. Since all normal hemoglobins contain α-chains, there is no increase in Hb F or Hb A₁. The extra non-α-chains may combine into tetramers to form β₄ (hemoglobin H) or γ₄ (hemoglobin Bart). These tetramers are ineffective in delivering oxygen and are unstable. Inheritance of deficiency of a pair of genes from both parents results in intrauterine fetal death or severe disease of the newborn.

      In most forms of hemoglobin abnormality, only a single amino acid substitution occurs, but there may be combinations of hemoglobin abnormalities, or a hemoglobin abnormality may be inherited from one parent and thalassemia from the other. Thus, sickle-thalassemia and Hb E-thalassemia are relatively common.

      A malfunction of the abnormal hemoglobin may result in erythrocythemia, or overproduction of red cells. In these cases there is increased oxygen affinity, limiting proper delivery of oxygen to tissues and thereby stimulating the bone marrow to increase red cell production. In other cases the iron in heme may exist in the oxidized, or ferric (Fe³⁺), state and thus cannot combine with oxygen to carry it to tissues. This results in a bluish colour of the skin and mucous membranes (cyanosis). The abnormality in the globin molecule that accounts for this is usually in an area of the molecule called the heme pocket, which normally protects the iron against oxidation, despite the fact that oxygen is being carried at this site.

polycythemia

       polycythemia (erythrocytosis) is a condition characterized by an increase above normal in the number of red cells in the circulating blood, usually accompanied by an increase in the quantity of hemoglobin and in the volume of packed red cells. The increase may be either an actual rise in the total quantity of red cells in the circulation, or it may be the result of a loss of blood plasma and thus a relative increase in the concentration of red cells in the circulating blood (relative polycythemia). The latter may be the consequence of abnormally lowered fluid intake or of marked loss of body fluid, such as occurs in persistent vomiting, severe diarrhea, or copious sweating or when water is caused to shift from the circulation into the tissue.

      Polycythemia occurs in response to some known stimulus for the production of red cells. This is in contrast to a disease called polycythemia vera, in which an increased amount of red cells are produced without a known cause. In polycythemia vera there is usually an increase in other blood elements as well.

      Polycythemia is a response by the body to an increased demand for oxygen. It occurs when hemoglobin is not able to pick up large amounts of oxygen from the lungs (i.e., when it is not “saturated”). This may result from decreased atmospheric pressure, as at high altitudes, or from impaired pulmonary ventilation. The sustained increase in red cells in persons who reside permanently at high altitudes is a direct result of the diminished oxygen pressure in the environment. Chronic pulmonary disease (e.g., emphysema—abnormal distension of the lungs with air) may produce chronic hypoxemia (reduced oxygen tension in the blood) and lead to polycythemia. Extreme obesity also may severely impair pulmonary ventilation and thereby cause polycythemia ( pickwickian syndrome).

      Congenital heart disorders that permit shunting of blood from its normal path through the pulmonary circuit, thereby preventing adequate aeration of the blood, can also cause polycythemia, as can a defect in the circulating hemoglobin. The latter defect may be congenital because of an enzymatic or a hemoglobin abnormality, as mentioned above; or it may be acquired as the result of the excessive use of coal tar derivatives, such as phenacetin, which convert hemoglobin to pigments incapable of carrying oxygen (methemoglobin, sulfhemoglobin). Lastly, polycythemia can develop in the presence of certain types of tumours (tumour) and as the result of the action of adrenocortical secretions. Treatment of polycythemia due to any of these causes involves the correction or alleviation of the primary abnormality.

      In polycythemia vera the number of red cells and often also the numbers of white cells and platelets are increased, and the spleen usually is enlarged. In this disease the stem cell precursor of the bone marrow cells produces excessive progeny. Persons with polycythemia vera have an exceptionally ruddy complexion and may have headaches, dizziness, a feeling of fullness, and other symptoms. Because of the excessive quantities of red cells, the blood is usually thick, and its flow is retarded; it sometimes clots in the blood vessels ( thrombosis) of the heart, the brain, or the extremities with serious consequences. One of the simplest methods of treatment is to remove the blood, one pint at a time, from a vein until the cellular level approaches normal and the symptoms disappear. Occasionally it may be necessary to use drugs or radiation therapy, in the form of radioactive phosphorus, to restrain the overactivity of the marrow cells. These treatments must be avoided when possible, however, because of their potential complications.

Maxwell M. Wintrobe Jane F. Desforges

Diseases related to white blood cells

      Variations in the number of white blood cells (leukocyte) (leukocytes (leukocyte)) occur normally from hour to hour, the highest counts being recorded in the afternoon and the lowest in the early morning. Temporary increases also normally occur during muscular exercise, menstruation, pregnancy, and childbirth, as well as in certain emotional states. Abnormal changes in the count, appearance, or proportion of the various white cells are indicative of pathological conditions in the body.

leukocytosis

      The condition in which white cells are present in greater numbers than normal is termed leukocytosis. It is usually caused by an increase in the number of granulocytes (especially neutrophils), some of which may be immature (myelocytes). Most often leukocytosis is the result of the presence of an infection (infectious disease), usually caused by pyogenic (pus-producing) organisms such as Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Gonococcus, Pneumococcus, or Meningococcus. Leukocyte counts of 12,000 to 20,000 per cubic millimetre during infections are not unusual. As the number of cells increases, the proportion of immature cells usually rises, perhaps because the demands on the leukocyte-producing tissues in the bone marrow have increased to the point at which there is an insufficient number of mature cells for delivery into the circulation. As the infection subsides, the number of younger forms and the total white cell count decrease and ultimately return to normal. During the period of repair following an inflammatory reaction, the monocytes may increase in number, and subsequently the lymphocytes (lymphocyte) will become more numerous.

      Certain types of infection are characterized from the beginning by an increase in the number of small lymphocytes unaccompanied by increases in monocytes or granulocytes. Such lymphocytosis is usually of viral origin. Moderate degrees of lymphocytosis are encountered in certain chronic infections such as tuberculosis and brucellosis.

      Infectious mononucleosis, caused by the Epstein-Barr virus, is associated with the appearance of unusually large lymphocytes (atypical lymphocytes). These cells represent part of the complex defense mechanism against the virus, and they disappear from the blood when the attack of infectious mononucleosis subsides. Infectious mononucleosis occurs predominantly in persons from 10 to 30 years of age. It is transmitted by oral contact with exchange of saliva. Discomfort, fever, sore throat, and flulike symptoms, together with enlargement of lymph nodes and spleen, characterize the condition. The blood serum contains an antibody (sheep cell or heterophil agglutinin) that is characteristic of the disease, but antibodies against the Epstein-Barr virus itself are more-specific markers of the infection. The symptoms of this disease vary in severity in different persons, but often they are mild. Recovery takes place within several weeks, as a rule.

      Despite the immune response against the Epstein-Barr virus, the virus is never completely eliminated from the body. A small number of virus particles remain in latent form within B lymphocytes (lymphocytes that are derived in the bone marrow). In a normal person the immune system (the T lymphocytes, those that mature in the thymus, in particular) keeps the latent viruses in check. If the natural responses of the immune system are suppressed (immunosuppression), however, the Epstein-Barr virus can emerge from its latent form and initiate a new round of infection. The Epstein-Barr virus is a member of the herpesvirus family, which also includes viruses that cause cold sores ( herpes simplex type 1), genital ulcers ( herpes simplex type 2), and shingles ( herpes zoster) and the cytomegalovirus. All of these viruses show the property of latency, and in each case immunosuppression can lead to their activation. The most dramatic example of this can be found in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ( AIDS), which causes a pronounced deficiency of T lymphocytes. Patients with AIDS can develop severe and even fatal herpesvirus infections.

      Monocytosis, an increase in the number of monocytes in the blood, occurs in association with certain infectious processes, especially subacute bacterial endocarditis—inflammation of the lining of the heart—and malaria. Monocytosis also occurs when the bone marrow is recovering from a toxic injury.

      Eosinophilic leukocytosis, an increase in the number of eosinophilic leukocytes, is encountered in many allergic (allergy) reactions and parasitic infections. It is especially characteristic of trichinosis—a disorder resulting from infestation by trichina larvae, which are ingested when poorly cooked infected pork is eaten.

leukopenia

       leukopenia is characterized by leukocyte counts that are abnormally low (below 4,000 per cubic millimetre). Like leukocytosis, which is usually due to an increase of neutrophils (neutrophilia), leukopenia usually is due to a reduction in the number of neutrophils (neutropenia). Of itself, neutropenia causes no symptoms, but persons with neutropenia of any cause may have frequent and severe bacterial infections. agranulocytosis is an acute disorder characterized by severe sore throat, fever, and marked fatigue associated with extreme reduction in the number of neutrophilic granulocytes or even their complete disappearance from the blood.

      Neutropenia may be due to a hypersensitivity mechanism in which a drug provokes the formation of antibodies (antibody). If the drug happens to bind to the neutrophil, the antibody destroys the neutrophil when it reacts with the drug. A second important mechanism of neutropenia is toxic damage to the bone marrow. Chemotherapeutic agents used in the treatment of cancer, particularly leukemia, often produce leukopenia (and neutropenia) by damaging the bone marrow. Other drugs that cause neutropenia include pain relievers (analgesics (analgesic)), antihistamines (antihistamine), tranquilizers (tranquilizer), anticonvulsants, antimicrobial agents, sulfonamide derivatives, and antithyroid drugs.

      Neutropenia also is associated with certain types of infections (e.g., typhoid (typhoid fever), brucellosis, measles, and HIV infection) and with certain diseases involving the bone marrow (e.g., aplastic anemia) or the spleen. In addition, sufficiently high doses of radiation will cause neutropenia, as will certain chemotherapeutic agents. Treatment is directed toward the cause of the neutropenia.

leukemia

       leukemia is a potentially fatal disease of the blood-forming tissues. The term leukemia means “white blood” and arose from the discovery of extremely large numbers of white blood cells in the blood of certain persons; counts as high as 500,000 per cubic millimetre and even 1,000,000 per cubic millimetre may be found in some instances. There are two main varieties of leukemia: myelogenous, or granulocytic, and lymphocytic. These terms refer to the types of cell that are involved. Each of these types is further subdivided into acute and chronic categories, referring to the duration of the untreated disease. Before the advent of modern chemotherapy, patients with acute leukemia usually died within weeks or months of the first manifestations of the disease. The life span of patients with chronic leukemia is now measured in years.

      The cause of leukemia is not known, but researchers have identified certain risk factors that increase a person's chance of developing the disease. Ionizing radiation is a leukemia-inducing agent. Survivors of the atomic bomb explosions in Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II, pioneering radiologists who used inadequately shielded apparatus, and certain patients receiving a particular kind of radiation are known to have developed leukemia with a frequency far exceeding that of the general population. Noteworthy is the fact that almost all radiation-induced leukemia has been of the myelogenous variety. The prolonged administration of radiomimetic drugs used in cancer chemotherapy, termed alkylating agents, is also associated with an increased risk of developing leukemia. Some evidence suggests that certain industrial chemicals, notably benzene, may cause leukemia. Genetic factors may lead to an increased frequency of leukemia in certain selected instances. This is suggested by evidence that shows the higher probability for acute leukemia occurring in both identical twins if one is affected as compared with both fraternal twins under the same conditions as well as by the frequency of development of acute myelogenous leukemia in children with Down syndrome, a condition in which there is a recognized chromosome defect.

      Advances in molecular genetics have greatly increased the understanding of leukemia. The disease seems to arise from a genetic change ( mutation) in an early progenitor, or stem cell, in the bone marrow. The mutant cell passes the genetic change on to all of its progeny, thus giving rise to a clone of leukemic cells. In many cases of leukemia, the mutation is detectable by analysis of the chromosomes of leukemic cells. A well-studied abnormality of this type, the Philadelphia chromosome, occurs in almost all cases of chronic myelogenous leukemia. The chromosomal aberrations affect genes that influence vital aspects of cell growth and function. These genes, the oncogenes (oncogene), may themselves be mutated or their regulation may be abnormal. The entire process, beginning with the mutation, usually involves many steps that culminate in a cell with the malignant attributes of a leukemic cell. This concept of the mechanism of leukemia has influenced treatment of the disease, which aims to eliminate the mutant clone and all of its progeny by chemotherapy or bone marrow transplantation (see below).

      Leukemia primarily involves the bone marrow, but the lymph nodes and spleen may also be affected. Changes also take place in the leukocytes, red blood cells, and platelets, with consequent anemia and bleeding manifestations. There may be weakness and an increased tendency to become fatigued because of anemia, in addition to hemorrhages into the skin, nosebleeds, or gum bleeding due to a decrease in the number of platelets. Leukemia is diagnosed by examination of the blood, supplemented in most instances by examination of the bone marrow.

      Acute leukemia is marked by the presence in the blood of immature cells normally not present. In acute lymphocytic anemia (ALL), most frequently seen in children, the cells are immature forms of the lymphatic series of cells. In acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), the predominant cells are the youngest recognizable precursors (myeloblasts) of the neutrophils of the blood. In a third and the least common variety, acute monocytic leukemia, the immature cells appear to be precursors of the monocytes of the blood. Myelogenous and monocytic leukemia occur more commonly in adults and adolescents than in young children. In general, acute leukemia occurs in young persons, but no age group is exempt. The total white cell count usually is increased but not uncommonly is normal or lower than normal (leukopenic). In such cases, abnormal immature cells may nevertheless be seen in the blood. In all forms of acute leukemia, the typical cells are found in abundance in the bone marrow.

      Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) is characterized by the appearance in the blood of large numbers of immature white blood cells of the myelogenous series in the stage following the myeloblast, namely, myelocytes. The spleen becomes enlarged, anemia develops, and the affected person may lose weight. The platelets may be normal or increased in number, abnormally low values being found only in the late stages of the disease or as an unintended result of therapy. The disease is most commonly encountered in persons between 30 and 60 years of age. With treatment the leukocyte count falls to normal, anemia is relieved, and the size of the spleen is greatly reduced. When the leukocyte count rises again, treatment is reinstituted. Such cycles of treatment, remission, and relapse with rise of leukocyte count can be repeated many times, but a stage ultimately is reached when treatment no longer is effective. The disease then often terminates in a form resembling acute leukemia (blastic crisis). There is considerable variation in the duration of the disease. Although in various series the average life span has been about 3 years, many affected persons live in good general condition for 5 to 10 years and sometimes longer.

      Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) differs in many ways from other forms of leukemia. It occurs most often in people over 50 years of age, and its course usually is rather benign. It is mainly characterized by an increase in the number of lymphocytes in the blood, often accompanied by more or less generalized enlargement of lymph nodes and the spleen. Affected persons may go for many years without treatment and without any other manifestations. There may be no anemia and no loss of weight. Life span in this disease is measured in terms of 5 to 15 years, occasionally even longer. Two events mark a change in the state of relative good health. One is the development of anemia, sometimes hemolytic in type, often accompanied by some decrease in the number of platelets. The other is impairment of immune mechanisms, resulting in great susceptibility to bacterial infections.

      Treatment differs according to the type of leukemia. Consequently, proper classification of the leukemia is the first step, once the diagnosis of leukemia has been made. A number of drugs are used for the treatment of leukemia; and, though now less frequently than before chemotherapy was available, so are various forms of radiation (radiation therapy). The therapeutic agents are all myelotoxic (i.e., they injure all the cells of the bone marrow, normal cells as well as leukemic cells). Their mode of action is through direct damage to the dividing stem cell (unspecialized cell from which specialized cells develop) or by slowing or cessation of cell division ( mitosis). These effects may be accomplished (1) by antimetabolites (antimetabolite), drugs that interfere with the synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA), a constituent of the chromosomes in the cell nucleus; (2) by blocking DNA strand duplication through the binding of drugs such as nitrogen mustard with the base groups of DNA; (3) by disruption of the mitotic spindle during mitosis; or (4) by interfering with the formation or functioning of ribonucleic acid ( RNA), which is manufactured in the cell nucleus and plays an essential role in the production of protein and in other cell functions. Drugs with different modes of action are often combined, especially in the treatment of acute leukemia. In the process of treatment, anemia may increase; the body defenses, through the decrease in the number of neutrophils, may be impaired, and the platelets may be greatly reduced in number. Anemia can be treated with blood transfusions, and serious reductions in platelets can be met for a time with platelet transfusions.

      Acute lymphocytic leukemia is more successfully treated than are other forms of acute leukemia; prolonged remissions and even cures can be brought about in children with the disease. Certain drugs are used to bring about remission; if the remission is complete, the patient becomes well, and no signs of the disease are demonstrable in the blood or bone marrow; drugs other than those used to induce remission often are more useful in maintaining the remission than the remission-inducing drugs.

      Acute myelogenous leukemia and acute monocytic leukemia are less effectively treated by available drugs than is acute lymphocytic leukemia. Nevertheless, new and aggressive forms of chemotherapy can induce lengthy remissions of the disease. Transplantation of normal bone marrow, often from histocompatible siblings, following total radiation of the patient to destroy all normal bone marrow cells as well as the leukemic cells, has shown promise. Although the treatment is arduous and complex, cures of acute lymphocytic and acute myelogenous forms of leukemia are possible with bone marrow transplantation.

      Chronic myelogenous leukemia is treated with the drugs hydroxyurea or busulfan in daily doses until the leukocyte count has returned to normal. Treatment then is interrupted until the leukocyte count has risen to about 50,000 cells per cubic millimetre, when treatment is resumed. This can be repeated many times, and thus the affected person is maintained in good health for years. Not infrequently, the intervals between treatments are six months or longer. Busulfan, however, like other antileukemic agents, can injure the bone marrow, and other adverse effects may occur. Other drugs and radiation therapy also have been used but are somewhat less valuable than hydroxyurea or busulfan. In suitable young patients, bone marrow transplantation has been used successfully in chronic myelogenous leukemia.

      In its early stages, chronic lymphocytic leukemia seems best untreated, as long as anemia is not present or glandular enlargement is not too troublesome. None of the current treatments are curative. The high leukocyte counts in themselves are not harmful. When there is severe anemia, however, or when the platelet count is very low and bleeding manifestations are severe, adrenocorticosteroid hormones are often given.

Lymphoma

       lymphoma is characterized by malignant tumours (tumour) of lymphocytes that are usually not associated with a leukemic blood picture. Instead, enlargement of lymph nodes, the spleen, or both are characteristic. The lymphomas are classified into two main groups: Hodgkin disease and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (or lymphocytic lymphoma). Hodgkin disease usually begins with a painless swelling of a lymph node, and it may involve lymph nodes anywhere in the body. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma arises from either B lymphocytes or T lymphocytes. It may have an indolent course, as in the nodular well-differentiated B lymphocyte lymphomas, or the tumour may be aggressive, as in the diffuse T lymphocyte forms. Unlike Hodgkin disease, non-Hodgkin lymphoma spreads through the bloodstream.

      Viruses have been shown to cause lymphoma in mice, rats, cats, and cows. These animal viruses are not infectious for human cells. A human retrovirus, human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV-I), has been suggested to be the cause of a type of lymphoma called T-cell lymphoma. Cases of T-cell lymphoma associated with HTLV-I have been found in clusters in southern Japan (Kyushu) and in the coastal region of Georgia in the United States, but sporadic cases also have been identified.

      The disease seems to begin in one lymph node and spread to others. Exact determination of the extent of Hodgkin disease (staging) is important in planning its treatment. This entails a thorough medical examination, a bone marrow biopsy, and X-rays (X-ray). The latter usually include computerized axial tomography (CAT) scanning to identify enlarged lymph nodes in the interior of the body. In many cases, surgery (laparotomy) is required to obtain for examination lymph nodes from deep within the abdomen. The early stages of Hodgkin disease can be cured with radiation therapy. More-advanced stages are still curable with chemotherapy, and in some patients a combination of chemotherapy and radiation therapy is used. In non-Hodgkin lymphoma the staging procedure is not as extensive as in Hodgkin disease. Combination chemotherapy, usually given in cycles over a period of months, is effective in certain types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Prolonged remission with eradication of the disease is difficult to achieve in the indolent nodular lymphomas.

multiple myeloma

      Another malignant disease, probably related to the above conditions, is multiple myeloma, which is characterized by a malignant overgrowth of plasma cells within the bone marrow. This severely painful disorder causes defects in the bone of the skull, the ribs, the spine, and the pelvis that ultimately result in fractures (fracture). As the bone marrow becomes more involved, anemia develops and hemorrhages occur: the number of leukocytes may be low, and abnormal myeloma or plasma cells are found in the bone marrow. This disorder is associated with a marked overproduction of immunoglobulin by the malignant plasma cell (the normal plasma cell is the source of the antibodies). The plasma cells in multiple myeloma are the progeny of a single malignant clone, and they secrete into the blood a single type of immunoglobulin molecule—a monoclonal immunoglobulin. In some cases, a component of immunoglobulin, the light chain, may be produced in excess. These light chains appear in the urine, and in multiple myeloma they are called Bence Jones proteins. A type of chronic kidney disease often develops, probably as a result of the high concentration of Bence Jones proteins in the kidney tubules; this frequently is the ultimate cause of death. Adrenocorticosteroid hormones and chemotherapeutic agents are used in the treatment of multiple myeloma.

Maxwell M. Wintrobe Robert S. Schwartz

Diseases related to platelets (platelet) and coagulation proteins

Bleeding (bleeding and blood clotting) disorders

      Bleeding disorders may result from inherited or acquired defects of clotting or platelet function. The usual consequence is persistent bleeding from injuries that would normally cause little trouble. Some persons may bleed more easily than normal, perhaps even spontaneously, as a result of an increased fragility of the blood vessels; this fragility is not itself a hemostatic defect but may be associated with one. The most characteristic feature of blood-clotting (coagulation) defects, as typified by hemophilia, are recurrent, crippling hemorrhages into joints and muscles and bleeding into body cavities. platelet abnormalities are associated with spontaneous bleeding from the membranes of the nose, mouth, and gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts.

       Laboratory diagnosis of coagulation disordersThe diagnosis of hemostatic defects depends on clinical and laboratory data. Investigation of the affected person's family history is important because many of these conditions are inherited. The personal history reveals the type of bleeding and the possible effects of drugs, chemicals, allergy, infection, or dietary abnormalities. Physical examination reveals visible hemorrhages or vascular lesions and the effects of internal bleeding. Platelets are evaluated by counting them, examining their appearance, and testing functions such as the bleeding time, platelet adhesiveness, and platelet aggregation (see table (Laboratory diagnosis of coagulation disorders)). Tests of clotting function include such indicators as the prothrombin time and the partial thromboplastin time. These tests allow a deficiency of any of the clotting factors to be identified and a quantitative assessment of activity of individual factors to be made. Most cases of abnormal bleeding can thus be traced to specific defects. Precise diagnosis often permits specific and effective treatment. General treatment of bleeding disorders consists mainly of temporary replacement therapy by transfusion (blood transfusion).

Disorders of platelet number

      Reduction in the number of blood platelets ( thrombocytopenia) may be the result of impaired production or increased destruction of platelets. Normal platelet counts are between 150,000 and 400,000 per cubic millimetre. When the platelet count drops to 50,000 to 75,000 per cubic millimetre, and particularly to 10,000 to 20,000 per cubic millimetre, spontaneous bleeding may occur.

      Thrombocytopenia is associated with such blood diseases as aplastic anemia and leukemia and is attributed to impaired production of platelets. Similarly, excessive radiation, exposure to certain chemicals (such as benzene), or drugs used in cancer chemotherapy decrease the production of platelets. In sensitive persons, drugs such as quinidine (used in the treatment of malaria) provoke platelet antibodies and platelet destruction, resulting in thrombocytopenia. Thrombocytopenia also may accompany certain infections such as measles and autoimmune disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus and idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura.

      Thrombocytopenia, if sufficiently severe, is accompanied by spontaneous bleeding from the capillaries. This causes the appearance of tiny purplish spots (petechiae) or larger black-and-blue areas (ecchymoses) in the skin. Bleeding occurs commonly from the nose and gums and occasionally from sites such as the urinary tract and the intestine; hemorrhage in the brain can have serious consequences.

Disorders of platelet function

      Some bleeding disorders are due to abnormalities of platelet function rather than to a defect in platelet number. Glanzmann thrombasthenia, an inherited disorder associated with a mild bleeding tendency, is due to a deficiency of the platelet glycoprotein IIb–IIIa, which is required for normal platelet function. Bernard-Soulier syndrome, an inherited disorder associated with a pronounced bleeding tendency, is due to a deficiency of glycoprotein Ib, also necessary for normal platelet function, on the platelet membrane. The platelets in this disease are unusually large. Many other platelet defects exist, but they have not been fully characterized at a biochemical level.

      The most common acquired disorder of platelet function is associated with aspirin, or acetylsalicylic acid. Aspirin reacts with platelets, even when the drug is taken at low doses. This reaction impairs the ability of platelets to produce a group of chemicals known as prostaglandins (prostaglandin), which stimulate inflammation. The inhibition of prostaglandin biosynthesis and the decrease in the production of thromboxane A₂, a substance secreted by platelets that diminishes blood loss, can be associated with a bleeding disorder. Other drugs have a similar effect, but aspirin is especially important because of its wide use and the sensitivity of certain persons to its action.

Vascular causes of bleeding disorders

      Vascular defects causing abnormal bleeding are rare. In cases of vitamin C deficiency ( scurvy), capillary integrity is lost, and blood seeps into the tissues. In the inherited condition hemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler-Rendu-Weber disease), groups of enormously dilated capillaries can be seen in the skin and mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. The lesions appear in adult life and tend to bleed on the least provocation. Ehlers-Danlos syndrome is a disorder of collagen synthesis in which the increased fragility of vessels causes them to be easily ruptured. The use of cortisone, prednisolone, and other glucocorticoid drugs are associated with increased capillary fragility and purpura (pinpoint hemorrhages in the skin and mucous membranes).

coagulation disorders

       Common hereditary and acquired coagulation disordersCoagulation disorders include a number of disorders that are related to defects in the clotting of blood. Deficiencies in any of the protein factors involved in coagulation can result in hemorrhages following minor injuries. In some of these disorders, a specific deficiency is due to an inherited defect (e.g., hemophilia). In others, an acquired pathological condition may be responsible for the deficiency (e.g., conditions interfering with absorption of vitamin K and severe infection). For common clotting disorders, see the table (Common hereditary and acquired coagulation disorders).

      The clotting deficiencies are treated with plasma or plasma proteins containing the missing factor. These agents can restore hemostatic function to normal for hours or days and, with continued treatment, allow injuries to heal or complicated surgery to be performed.

hemophilia

      The best-known coagulation disorder is hemophilia, which is due to an inherited defect transmitted by the female but manifested almost exclusively in the male. The most common form of hemophilia, hemophilia A, is caused by the absence of the coagulation protein factor VIII (antihemophilic globulin). Of persons with hemophilia, approximately 85 percent have factor VIII deficiency. The next most common form of hemophilia, hemophilia B, is due to deficiency of factor IX (plasma thromboplastin component, or PTC). Both factor VIII deficiency and factor IX deficiency have signs and symptoms that are indistinguishable. Spontaneous bleeding into joints, giving rise to severe chronic arthritis, is a common problem among persons with severe hemophilia; in addition, there is bleeding into the brain and the abdominal cavity, as well as marked bruising. In general, the greater the deficiency in either factor VIII or factor IX, the more severe the manifestations of disease.

      Treatment of bleeding episodes emphasizes the replacement of the missing plasma protein. In a patient with hemophilia A, factor VIII can be replaced by the infusion into a vein of plasma derived from a normal donor, the cryoprecipitate fraction of normal plasma, or a partially purified preparation of factor VIII derived from normal plasma. The peptide desmopressin (DDAVP) is useful in treating milder forms of hemophilia A. Similarly, in a patient with hemophilia B, factor IX can be replaced by the infusion into the vein of plasma derived from a normal donor or a partially purified preparation of factor IX derived from normal plasma. New methods of preparing factor VIII and factor IX, using genetic engineering techniques, have led to the introduction of safer factor VIII and factor IX generated by recombinant DNA methods. With the current methods of medical care, persons with hemophilia can live nearly normal, productive lives. Major surgery, if needed, can be accomplished by the administration of the missing protein.

Vitamin K deficiency

       vitamin K deficiency leads to a deficiency of the proteins that require vitamin K for their synthesis, including prothrombin, factor X, factor IX, and factor VII. Vitamin K deficiency is associated with obstructive jaundice, in which the flow of bile into the bowel is interrupted. Bile is necessary for the absorption of vitamin K. Similar changes may take place when absorption of vitamin K is impaired by conditions such as chronic diarrhea or with the administration of certain antibiotics. Vitamin K deficiency also occurs in the newborn infant as hemorrhagic disease of the newborn. This form of prothrombin deficiency (hypoprothrombinemia) can be prevented by administration of vitamin K to the baby shortly after birth. Accidental consumption or overdoses of the anticoagulant drug warfarin can lead to a deficiency of the vitamin K-dependent blood-clotting proteins and a serious bleeding tendency.

Afibrinogenemia

      Afibrinogenemia, or hypofibrinogenemia, refers to a reduction in the amount of the clotting factor fibrinogen in the blood. This is seen in rare instances as an inherited disorder, but more commonly it is found as part of the syndrome of disseminated intravascular coagulation (see below).

Von Willebrand disease

       von Willebrand disease is due to the lack of von Willebrand factor, a plasma protein that binds to factor VIII and promotes the interaction of platelets with the blood vessel. This disorder is transmitted as an autosomal dominant trait, and its symptoms consist mainly of bleeding through the skin and mucous membranes. Treatment is with the drug desmopressin (DDAVP) or with plasma-derived factor VIII preparations.

Disseminated intravascular coagulation

      Disseminated intravascular coagulation is an acquired disorder in which platelets and blood-clotting components are consumed until a severe deficiency exists, resulting in a bleeding disorder. In addition, the fibrinolytic system—the system that dissolves clots—is also activated, leading to the destruction of fibrinogen and fibrin clots. Numerous primary problems can be responsible for this activation: bacteria and bacterial products, dead or injured cells as a result of tissue injury or surgery, cells from the placenta or a dead fetus, certain forms of cancer, and venom from snakebites (snakebite). Treatment involves the removal of the inciting cause of the activation of the blood coagulation system.

thrombosis

       thrombosis, the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) that tends to plug functionally normal blood vessels, is one of the major causes of death in Western societies. In this condition the normal tendency of platelets to form a clot at the site of a vascular injury is a contributing factor. While the process of thrombosis is not completely understood, the chief underlying cause is believed to be a lesion ( atherosclerosis) that destroys the normal endothelial surface of the blood vessel. Platelets tend to adhere to such lesions and eventually form masses that, when reinforced by fibrin, may completely obstruct the blood flow. This obstruction may have disastrous consequences in arteries such as the coronary or cerebral blood vessels or a major artery of a limb or organ. In veins the local results are less apparent or perhaps not even detected; however, behind the original thrombus, the whole blood content of the vein may clot to form a large mass. This occurs most frequently in the leg veins and may be due to slowing of the blood flow during a prolonged surgical procedure or confinement to bed. The danger is that the thrombus may become detached (an embolus) and be swept into the pulmonary artery, causing circulatory obstruction in the lung.

      The hereditary deficiency of antithrombin III, protein C, protein S, and plasminogen can be associated with a thrombotic tendency—i.e., the inappropriate formation of clots in vessels. The most common of the thrombotic disorders include pulmonary embolism (clots in the lung) and deep vein thrombosis (formation of clots in the leg veins). Other predisposing causes of thrombosis are an increase in platelet numbers in the blood and the formation of functionally abnormal platelets in diseases of the bone marrow. The use of birth control pills (contraception), pregnancy, and many disorders may be associated with a thrombotic tendency, but the reasons for this association are not understood.

      The prevention and treatment of thrombosis aims at balancing the overactive clotting tendency and a bleeding tendency. The formation of clots may be prevented by the administration of anticoagulant drugs. Warfarin inhibits the action of vitamin K and renders the blood less able to clot. heparin facilitates the inhibition of activated clotting enzymes with the inhibitor, antithrombin III. These commonly used medications prevent the formation of clots or the enlargement of already existing clots. Streptokinase, urokinase, and tissue plasminogen activator are enzymes that are used therapeutically to dissolve clots. As agents that cause the lysis of fibrin clots, they are known collectively as fibrinolytic agents. Their administration, although attended by the possibility of bleeding complications, can restore blood flow through a vessel blocked by a clot.

Bruce Furie

Additional Reading

Major texts dealing with diseases of the blood include George Stamatoyannopoulos et al. (eds.), The Molecular Basis of Blood Diseases, 3rd ed. (2000); I. Chanarin, The Megaloblastic Anaemias, 3rd ed. (1990), a comprehensive work with numerous references; D.J. Weatherall, The Thalassaemia Syndromes, 4th ed. (2001); Edward S. Henderson and T. Andrew Lister (eds.), William Dameshek and Frederick Gunz's Leukemia, 5th ed. (1990); Oscar D. Ratnoff and Charles D. Forbes (ed.), Disorders of Hemostasis, 2nd ed. (1991); and Sheila T. Callender, Blood Disorders: The Facts (1985), a comprehensive basic introduction.Maxwell M. Wintrobe Robert S. Schwartz

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