Arabia, history of

Introduction

      history of the region from prehistoric times to the present.

      Some time after the rise of Islam in the first quarter of the 7th century AD and the emergence of the Arabian (Arab) Muslims as the founders of one of the great empires of history, the name “ʿArab” came to be used by these Muslims themselves and by the nations with whom they came in contact to indicate all people of Arabian origin. The very name Arabia, or its Arabic name Jazīrat al-ʿArab, has come to be used for the whole peninsula. But the definition of the area, even in Islamic sources, is not agreed upon unanimously. In its narrowest application it indicates much less than the whole peninsula, while in ancient Greek and Latin sources—and often in subsequent sources—the term Arabia includes the Syrian and Jordanian deserts and the Iraqi desert west of the lower Euphrates. Similarly, “Arabs” connoted, at least in pre-Islamic times, mainly the tribal populations of central and northern Arabia.

      Arabia has been inhabited by innumerable tribal (tribe) units, forever splitting or confederating; its history is a kaleidoscope of shifting allegiances, although certain broad patterns may be distinguished. A native system has evolved of moving from tribal anarchy to centralized government and relapsing again into anarchy. The tribes have dominated the peninsula, even in intermittent periods when the personal prestige of a leader has led briefly to some measure of tribal cohesion.

      Arabian culture is a branch of Semitic civilization; because of this and because of the influences of sister Semitic cultures to which it has been subjected at certain epochs, it is sometimes difficult to determine what is specifically Arabian. Because a great trade route passed along its flanks, Arabia had contact along its borders with Egyptian, Greco-Roman, and Indo-Persian civilizations. The Turkish overlords of the Arabic-speaking countries affected Arabia relatively little, however, and the dominant culture of western Europe arrived late in the colonial era.

      Arabia was the cradle of Islam (Islāmic world), and through this faith it influenced every Muslim people. Islam, essentially Arabian in nature, whatever superficial external influences may have affected it, is Arabia's outstanding contribution to world civilization.

Mahmud Ali Ghul Alfred Felix L. Beeston

Pre-Islamic Arabia, to the 7th Century AD

Prehistory and archaeology

      At one time Arabia as a whole may have had greater rainfall and richer vegetation than it does today, as shown by the large dried-up watercourses intersecting the peninsula. But climatic conditions seem to have changed little in the past five millennia; human life—settled or nomad—has been a struggle to cope with the harsh realities of this vast subcontinent.

      Stone Age settlements of fishermen and shellfish eaters going back to the 3rd millennium BC have been found on the northeast coast and in the islands of Faylakah and Bahrain. Surface scatters of flint implements are seen in many places in the peninsula, as are undatable but probably ancient rock drawings for which affinities have been thought to exist with rock drawings in the Sahara.

      Southern Arabia (comprising Yemen and Oman) lies within the climatic zone of the Indian Ocean monsoons, which yield enough rainfall to make it potentially the most fertile part of Arabia. In Yemen, sophisticated irrigation techniques go very far back indeed; soundings in the silt deposits around the great dam of Maʾrib attest intensive agricultural exploitation there from at least 2000 BC.

      The racial affinities of the Arabian populations are not traceable. A theory by which Arabia was considered the birthplace and homeland of the nations of Semitic culture is not now regarded as tenable. Arabian peoples have been held to be related to a variety of groups, with homelands in almost all directions outside Arabia: the view that sought to visualize all Arabians as a single race has never been valid. The oldest evidence indicates the presence of Africans in the Red Sea coastal plain, Iranians in the southeastern tip of the peninsula, and peoples of Aramaean stock in the north. The racial affinities of the ancient Yemeni peoples remain unsolved; the marked similarity of their culture to the Semitic cultures that arose in the Fertile Crescent to the north of the peninsula can be attributed to cultural spread rather than to immigration.

      Apart from pursuing the few prehistoric evidences, archaeological research centres mainly on sites of the historic period, which is also attested by written records beginning in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. Some sites in the northern Hejaz, such as Dedān (now Al-ʿUlā), Al-Ḥijr (now Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ, barely six miles north of Dedān), and Taymāʾ to the northeast of the other two, have long been known but not fully explored. In south central Arabia, near Al-Sulayyil, a town site at Qaryat Dhāt Kāhil (now Qaryat al-Fāw) has yielded rich results from excavation. In northeastern Arabia, inland from modern Al-Qaṭīf, a Danish expedition has revealed a hitherto unsuspected pre-Islamic walled town of large dimension.

      The written records consist of a vast number of inscriptions (epigraphy) (especially thickly clustered in Yemen) on stone slabs, rock faces, bronze tablets, and other objects, together with graffiti on rock, scattered widely through the peninsula. In all this material, only a handful of inscriptions can properly be called Arabic. In the north and centre the dominant linguistic form is Old North Arabian (subclassified into Liḥyānic, Thamūdic, and Ṣafaitic); despite close connections between this group and Arabic, the latter cannot be regarded as lineally descended from it. The Yemenite inscriptions are in Old South Arabian (subclassified into Minaean, Sabaean, Qatabānian, and Hadhramautic), which is a wholly independent group within the Semitic family of languages. (The Old North Arabian and Old South Arabian inscriptions and graffiti are in scripts of a South Semitic type, of which Ethiopic is the only present-day survivor; modern Arabic script is of a North Semitic type.) Unscientific pillaging, however, has deprived many of the Yemeni inscriptions of a good deal of their value by removing them from their archaeological context. There are also inscriptions in extraneous languages: Aramaic, Greek, and Latin.

      In the ancient Yemeni culture area are many great structures and monuments, such as dams, temples, and palaces, as well as a wealth of plastic art of extremely high quality. The motifs, such as the ubiquitous bull heads and ibex figures, are partly characteristic of Yemen, but from the 3rd century BC onward the style is markedly Hellenistic.

      Fresh data, both archaeological and epigraphic, appear every year and sometimes entail radical reappraisal of earlier hypotheses. Any attempt at a synthetic picture is therefore strictly provisional.

Sabaean and Minaean Kingdoms

      The Greek writer Eratosthenes (Eratosthenes of Cyrene) (3rd century BC) described “Eudaimon Arabia” (i.e., Yemen) as inhabited by four major peoples (ethne), and it is on the basis of his nomenclature for these groups that modern scholars are accustomed to speak of Minaeans, Sabaeans, Qatabānians, and Hadramites. The fourfold categorization does indeed correspond to the linguistic data, but the political and historical facts are a good deal more complex. The capitals of the four peoples were not located in the centres of their respective territories but instead lay close together on the western, southern, and eastern fringes of a tract of sand desert known to medieval Arab geographers as the Ṣayhad (modern Ramlat al-Sabʿatayn). This off-centre placing has been thought to originate from proximity to the trade route by which frankincense was conveyed from Hadhramaut first westward, then north to Najrān, then up the west coast of Arabia to Gaza, and across the peninsula to the east coast. The territories attached to the latter three of the capitals spread out fanwise into the mountainous regions.

Sabaeans (Sabaean)

      The people who called themselves Sabaʾ (biblical Sheba) are both the earliest and the most abundantly attested in the surviving written records. Their centre was at Maʾrib, east of present-day Sanaa and on the edge of the sand desert. (In the indigenous inscriptions Maʾrib is rendered Mryb or Mrb; the modern spelling is based on an unjustified “correction” by medieval Arabic writers.) The town lay in a formerly highly cultivated area watered by the great Maʾrib Dam, which controlled the flow from the extensive Wadi Dhana basin.

      Sabaean rulers—who are mentioned in Assyrian annals of the late 8th and early 7th centuries BC (although some scholars date Sabaean inscriptions to about the 6th century BC)—were responsible for impressive constructions both cultic and irrigational, including the greatest part of what is now visible of the dam; but there are traces of earlier dam works, and the silt deposits indicate agricultural exploitation far back in prehistory.

      From the early historic period one ruler, named Karibʾil Watar, has left a long epigraphic record of victories over peoples throughout the major part of Yemen, most importantly the Awsānian kingdom to the southeast, but the victories did not lead to permanent conquest. Nor did his campaigns ever extend into the Hadhramaut region or to the Red Sea coastal area. At no period of their history as an independent people did the Sabaeans have real control of those two areas; in the Red Sea coastal area the sole indication of their presence is a small temple near Zabīd, probably attached to a military outpost guarding a route down to the sea.

      Two secondary centres were Ṣirwāh, on a tributary of the Wadi Dhana above the dam, and Nashq (now Al-Bayḍāʾ (Bayḍāʾ, Al-)), at the western end of Wadi al-Jawf.

      From perhaps just before the Christian era, however, the highland regions, both north and west of Sanaa, played a much more active part in Sabaean affairs, and some of the rulers belonged to highland clans. The early centuries of the Christian era also saw the emergence of Sanaa as a government centre and royal residence (in its palace, Ghumdān) almost rivaling the status of Maʾrib. Nevertheless, Maʾrib (with its palace, Salḥīn) retained its prestige into the 6th century AD.

      Sabaean rulers of the early period employed a regnal style consisting of two names, each chosen from a very short list of alternatives; possible permutations were thus limited, and the same style recurs several times over. In drafting their own texts, the rulers adopted the title mukarrib, now generally thought to mean “unifier” (with allusion to the process of expansion of Sabaean influence over neighbouring communities). Persons other than the rulers never used this title in their texts but referred to the rulers by their regnal styles or occasionally as “king of Maʾrib.” Later the title mukarrib disappeared, and the rulers referred to themselves, and were referred to by their subjects, as “king of Sabaʾ.”

      As among the Minaeans, the early rulers were only one element in a legislature including both a council and representatives of the nation. The rulers' personal activity lay mainly in building and in leading wars. The first three centuries of the Christian era have yielded a more ample documentation than any other period, but during those centuries the Sabaeans were facing a strong threat from the Ḥimyarites (Ḥimyar) to the south of them. The Ḥimyarites succeeded at times in gaining supremacy over the Sabaeans, and at the end of the 3rd century they definitively absorbed the Sabaeans into their realm. In the wars of the 1st century onward, the kings (whether Sabaean or Ḥimyarite) were supported both by a national army (khamīs) under their own command and by contingents raised from the associated communities led by qayls, belonging to the aristocratic clans that headed each associated community. The oldest documents attest a number of other kingdoms. The most important was Awsān, which lay in the highlands to the south of the Wadi Bayḥān. An early Sabaean text speaks of a massive defeat of Awsān, in terms that attest its high significance. Yet the kingdom had a brief resurgence much later, around the turn of the Christian era, when it appears to have been wealthy and heavily influenced by Hellenistic culture. One of its kings of this period was the only Yemeni ruler to be (like the Ptolemies and Seleucids) accorded divine honours, and his portrait statuette is dressed in Greek garb, contrasting with those of his predecessors who are dressed in Arabian style, with kilt and shawl. Awsānian inscriptions are in the Qatabānian language (which might account for the fact that Eratosthenes gives no separate mention to Awsān in his list of the main ethne).

Minaeans

      The Minaean kingdom ( Maʿīn) lasted from the 4th to the 2nd century BC and was predominantly a trading organization that, for the period, monopolized the trade routes. References to Maʿīn occur earlier in Sabaean texts, where they seem to be loosely associated with the ʿĀmir people to the north of the Minaean capital of Qarnaw (now Maʿīn), which is at the eastern end of the Wadi al-Jawf and on the western border of the Ṣayhad sands. The Minaeans had a second town surrounded by impressive and still extant walls at Yathill, a short distance south of Qarnaw; and they had trading establishments at Dedān and in the Qatabānian and Hadramite capitals. The overwhelming majority of Minaean inscriptions come from Qarnaw, Yathill, and Dedān, and there is virtually no evidence of territorial possessions apart from the immediate vicinities of these three centres, which have more the aspect of typical “caravan cities.” A thin scattering of Minaean inscriptions has been found in places just outside Arabia, such as Egypt and the island of Delos, all manifestly resulting from far-flung trading (international trade) activities; and texts from Qarnaw refer to a number of important points on the caravan routes, such as Yathrib (Medina) and Gaza, and also to interruption of trade by one of the several phases of warfare between Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria. An explicit mention of caravans is perhaps found in the expression mʿn mṣrn, interpreted by the scholar Mahmud Ali Ghul as “the Minaean caravaneers.”

      Minaean social structure differed from that of the other three, predominantly agricultural peoples. The latter were federations of communities (often termed by modern scholars “tribes,” though they were not genealogically based) grouped under a leading community, with the nation as a whole designated by the name of the hegemonial community, followed by the phrase “and the [associated] communities.” The Minaeans, however, were subdivided into groups of varying size and importance, some quite small, with none exercising a dominating role over the others. Among the other three peoples the office of “elder” (kabīr) was normally filled by the head of one of the associated communities in a national federation. Among the Minaeans, however, the kabīr was a biennially appointed magistrate controlling one of the trading settlements or, in some cases, invested with authority in all of them. Legislative functions were exercised by the king acting together with a council and representatives of all the Minaean social classes. Minaean inscriptions make no mention of wars undertaken by the king or the state; this suggests that Maʿīn may have enjoyed covenants of safe-conduct with their neighbours along the trade routes.

Other pre-Islamic Yemeni kingdoms

Qatabānians

      The heartland of the Qatabān people was Wadi Bayḥān, with the capital, Timnaʿ, at its northern end, and Wadi Ḥarīb, immediately west of Bayḥān. As in the case of Maʿīn, the earliest references are in Sabaean inscriptions; native Qatabānian inscriptions do not seem to antedate the 4th century BC. Timnaʿ was destroyed by fire at a date not easy to fix; pottery evidence has been thought to suggest the 1st century AD, but epigraphy points to a survival of the kingdom at least until the end of the 2nd century. Its fortunes had fluctuated: in the earliest Sabaean phase it was “liberated” by the Sabaeans from Awsānian domination in the above-mentioned defeat of Awsān. At some periods the Qatabānians themselves dominated a federacy similar to the Sabaean one, and at a relatively late date a ruler whom his subjects called “King of Qatabān” styled himself mukarrib of Qatabān. Inasmuch as Eratosthenes says that this people extended to “both seas”—i.e., the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden—it might be inferred that there was some sort of Qatabānian presence in the southwest corner of the peninsula, an area later ruled by the Ḥimyarites.

Hadramite (Ḥaḍramawt)s

      Inscriptions from the Hadramite kingdom are scantier in number than from the Sabaean, Minaean, or Qatabānian. Yet the Hadramite was probably the wealthiest of them all. Hadhramaut and the Saʾkal area to the east (modern Dhofar province of the sultanate of Oman) are the only places in Arabia where climatic conditions make production of frankincense possible, and Pliny wrote that the whole of the produce was collected at the Hadramite capital, Shabwah, on the eastern fringe of the Ṣayhad sands, and taxed there before being handed over to the caravans that carried it to the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia. In addition, Hadhramaut was an entrepôt for Indian goods brought by sea and then forwarded by land. The caravan trade may have suffered to some degree from competition by Red Sea shipping, which, from the 1st century AD, began to sail through the Bab El-Mandeb Strait into the Indian Ocean. Nevertheless, as late as about AD 230 a king of Hadhramaut received missions from India and Palmyra (Tadmor), at the opposite ends of the long-standing trade route along which Hadhramaut occupied a central position. At Shabwah, French archaeological work begun in 1975 adjacent to the visible temple ruin has revealed a walled town of larger extent than any other ancient Yemeni site. The palace, on the opposite side of the town from the temple, was, according to the archaeological evidence, a truly magnificent building. The main port of Hadhramaut was at Cane on the bay of Biʾr ʿAlī; and the Hadramites had a settlement at Samhar-m (now Khawr Rawrī) on Qamar Bay in the Saʾkal region, founded about the turn of the Christian era.

Ḥimyarite (Ḥimyar)s

      Ḥimyar is the Arabic form of the name of a people who appear in the inscriptions as Ḥmyr and in Greek sources as Homeritai. They occupied the extreme southwest of the peninsula and had their capital at Ẓafār, a site some nine miles southeast of present-day Yarīm, on the motor road from Aden and Taʿizz to Sanaa. The first appearance of Ḥimyar in history is in Pliny's Naturalis Historia (latter half of the 1st century AD); a short time later the Greek document known to scholars as the Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions an individual who was “king of two nations, the Homerites and the Sabaeans.” But this dual kingship was not definitive: throughout the 2nd and 3rd centuries there were phases of warfare between native Sabaean rulers and Ḥimyarite ones. Royal titulature in this period is confusing: alongside “kings of Sabaʾ” are found “kings of Sabaʾ and the Raydān,” but the implications of the latter are still debated. A thesis advanced by the Arab scholar M.A. Bafaqih is that the former are native Sabaeans and the latter heads of a dual kingship over both peoples. Others have held that native Sabaean rulers sometimes claimed the longer title even when there was little reality behind it. Moreover, the Ḥimyarites, until the 6th century AD, used the Sabaean language for their epigraphic records, and there are no inscriptions or other monuments at Ẓafār or elsewhere in the true Ḥimyarite area that can be confidently dated before AD 300.

      In the last decades of the 3rd century AD a Ḥimyarite ruler named Shammar Yuharʿish ended the independent existence of both Sabaʾ and Hadhramaut; and inasmuch as Qatabān had already disappeared from the political map, the whole of Yemen was united under his rule. Thereafter, the royal style was “king of Sabaʾ and the Raydān and Hadhramaut and Yamnat.” Arabic writers call him and his successors the Tabābiʿah (singular Tubbaʿ), and, because in the centuries immediately preceding Islam Yemen was dominated by the Ḥimyarites, the Arabic writers (followed by many 19th-century Europeans) apply the term Ḥimyaritic to all pre-Islamic monuments of Yemen, irrespective of date or location.

The Tubbaʿ kings

      A major break with the past was made in the 4th century AD, when the polytheistic religion of the earlier cultures was replaced by a monotheistic cult of “The Merciful (Raḥmān), Lord of heaven and earth.” There was also an increasing interest, both friendly and hostile, in central Arabia. Already in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD Sabaean, Ḥimyaro-Sabaean, and Ḥimyarite rulers had employed central Arabian Bedouin mercenaries; and the first Tubbaʿ king, Shammar Yuharʿish, sent a diplomatic mission to the Sāsānian court at Ctesiphon.

      The kingdom of Aksum in Eritrea is mentioned in Sabaean texts of the 2nd century AD as having some not very definable link with Habashite (“Abyssinian”) people settled in the Arabian coastal areas, who were throughout the 2nd and 3rd centuries a thorn in the flesh of both Sabaean and Ḥimyaro-Sabaean rulers, even at one point occupying Ẓafār. Tension between Aksum and Ḥimyar reached a climax in AD 517 or 522, with a Jewish Ḥimyarite king (traditionally said to have been a convert to Judaism) named Yūsuf Asʾar Yathʾar. It seems that the conflict escalated from what had been (in one account) a trade dispute. Yūsuf massacred the entire Ethiopian population of the port of Mocha and of Ẓafār and, about a year later, the Christians of Najrān. Aksum retaliated with invasion, leading to the defeat and death of Yūsuf (who is known in Arabic tradition mostly by the nickname Dhū Nuwās) and the establishment of a puppet kingdom in Yemen subject to Aksum. Somewhat later the Ḥimyarite king Abraha regained some measure of independence, and he was responsible for major repairs to the Maʾrib Dam in the 540s. His reign was followed by a fairly brief Persian occupation of Yemen. Early in the 7th century Yemen accepted Islam peacefully, and its antique native culture merged into the Islamic culture.

Central and northern Arabia

      The oasis of Taymāʾ in the northern Hejaz emerged briefly into the limelight when the Neo-Babylonian king Nabu-naʾid ( Nabonidus, reigned c. 556–539 BC) took up his residence there for 10 years and extended his power as far as Yathrib. A few important monuments of this time are known.

Dedān and Al-Ḥijr

 It is possible that the Minaean settlement at Dedān (see above) coexisted with a native Dedānite town. But only one “king of Dedān” is recorded. This kingdom seems to have been replaced quite soon by a kingdom of Liḥyān (Greek: Lechienoi). The entire area, however, was not long in coming under the rule of the Nabataean kings of a dynasty (centred at Petra) covering the 1st century BC and the 1st AD; and the ancient town of Dedān was eclipsed by a new Nabataean foundation just to the north at Al-Ḥijr (Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ). At the beginning of the 2nd century AD the Nabataean kingdom was annexed by Rome, the official decree of annexation being dated 111. The Nabataeans, like the Minaeans before them, had been involved in the caravan trade, and it would appear probable that for at least a time after the annexation they continued this role, under Roman aegis. Subsequent history of the area remains obscure.

Kindah

      Kindah was a Bedouin tribal kingdom quite unlike the organized states of Yemen; its kings exercised an influence over a number of associated tribes more by personal prestige than by coercive settled authority. Its area of influence was south central Arabia, from the Yemeni border nearly up to Mecca. The discovery of the tomb of a king of Kindah (datable to perhaps the 3rd century AD) at Qaryat Dhāt Kāhil, on the trade route linking Najrān with the east coast, suggests that this site was in all likelihood the royal headquarters. Sabaean texts of the 2nd and 3rd centuries contain a number of references to Kindah, attesting relations sometimes hostile (as when an assault was made on Qaryat Dhāt Kāhil) and other times friendly (as evidenced by the supply of Kindite troops for the Yemenite rulers). This pattern of relationship seems to have continued down to the early 6th century, when the Kindite hegemony collapsed, partly as a consequence of tribal wars and partly perhaps as a result of the emergent power of the Meccan Quraysh at that time. The last Kindah king, the famous poet Imruʾ al-Qays, became a fugitive.

Al-Ḥīrah (Ḥīrah, al-)

      Al-Ḥīrah was similarly a Bedouin tribal kingdom, the kings of which are commonly designated the Lakhmids (Lakhmid Dynasty). According to tradition, the founder of the dynasty was ʿAmr, whose son Imruʾ al-Qays died in AD 328 and was entombed at Al-Nimārah in the Syrian desert. His funerary inscription is written in an extremely difficult type of script. Recently there has been a revival of interest in the inscription, and a lively controversy has arisen over its precise implications. One thing that is certain is that Imruʾ al-Qays claimed the title “king of all the Bedouin” and claimed to have campaigned successfully over the entire north and centre of the peninsula, as far as the border of Najrān. In Muslim sources it is said that he was given by the Sāsānian (Sāsānian dynasty) king Shāpūr II a “governorship” over the Bedouin of northeast Arabia, being charged with the task of restraining their incursions into Sāsānian territory. Later kings of the dynasty settled themselves definitively in that area, at Al-Ḥīrah (near modern Kufah). They remained influential throughout the 6th century, and only in 602 was the last Lakhmid king, Nuʿmān ibn al-Mundhir, put to death by the Sāsānian king Khosrow II (Parvīz) and the kingdom swept away. In the 6th century Al-Ḥīrah was a considerable centre of Nestorian Christianity.

Ghassān

      The dynasty of the Ghassānids, though often called kings, were in fact Byzantine phylarchs (native rulers of subject frontier states). They had their headquarters well within the Byzantine Empire, a little east of the Sea of Galilee at Jābiyah in the Jawlān (Golan) area; but they controlled large areas of northwestern Arabia, as far south as Yathrib, serving as a counterpoise to the Sāsānian-oriented Lakhmids in the northeast. The Ghassānids were Monophysite Christians and played an important part in the religious conflicts of the Byzantine church. Their influence spanned the 6th century AD, and their most prominent member, al-Ḥārith ibn Jabalah (Greek: Aretas), flourished in mid-century. The last three phylarchs fell out with Orthodox Byzantium because of their Monophysite creed; in 614 the power of Ghassān was destroyed by a Persian invasion.

Quraysh

      According to Muslim tradition, Mecca had at one time been in the hands of Jurhum, a people living on the central west coast recorded in Greco-Latin sources as Gorrhamites. But sometime about AD 500 (“five generations before the Prophet Muhammad”) Quṣayy ibn Kilāb, called al-Mujammiʿ (“The Unifier”), is credited with having brought together scattered groups of Bedouin and installed them in Mecca. They took over a role that had long before been played by Minaeans and Nabataeans, controlling the west coast trade routes; they sent annual caravans to Syria and Yemen. Authority in Quraysh was not royal but was vested in a mercantile aristocracy, not unlike the Venetian Republic. Their trading contracts ensured them considerable influence, and, when in the opening years of the 7th century the collapse of the Ḥimyarites, Lakhmids, and Ghassānids had left a power vacuum in the peninsula, Quraysh remained the only effective influence. There is, however, little doubt that the ancient traditions of Yemenite civilization contributed substantially to the consolidation of the Islamic empire.

Alfred Felix L. Beeston

Arabia since the 7th century

Arabian and Islamic expansion

      In the 6th century Quraysh—the noble and holy house of the confederation of the Hejaz controlling the sacred enclave (ḥaram) of Mecca—contrived a chain of agreements with the northern and southern tribes that opened the highways of Arabia to commerce. Under Quraysh aegis, caravans moved freely from the southern Yemen coast to Mecca and thence northward to Byzantium or eastward to Iraq. Another agreement made trade with Axum (in what is now Ethiopia) and the African coast secure, as was also the Arabian coastal sea route. Furthermore, members of the Quraysh house of ʿAbd Manāf concluded pacts with Byzantium, Persia, and rulers of Yemen and Ethiopia, promoting commerce outside Arabia. The ʿAbd Manāf house could effect such agreements because of Quraysh's superior position with the tribes. Quraysh had some sanctity as lords of the Meccan temple (the Kaʿbah) and were themselves known as the Protected Neighbours of Allah; the tribes on pilgrimage to Mecca were called the Guests of Allah.

 In its ḥaram Quraysh was secure from attack; it arbitrated in tribal disputes, attaining thereby at least a local preeminence and seemingly a kind of loose hegemony over many Arabian tribes. Temple privileges held by Quṣayy, who established the rule of Quraysh, passed to his posterity, the ʿAbd Manāf house of which collected the tax to feed the pilgrims. The Kaʿbah, through the additions of other cults, developed into a pantheon, the cult of other gods perhaps being linked with political agreements between Quraysh—worshipers of Allah—and the tribes.

The life of Muhammad

 Muhammad was born in 570 of the Hāshimite (Banū Hāshim) branch of the noble house of ʿAbd Manāf; though orphaned at an early age and, in consequence, with little influence, he never lacked protection by his clan. Marriage to a wealthy widow improved his position as a merchant, but he began to make his mark in Mecca by preaching the oneness of Allah. Rejected by the Quraysh lords, Muhammad sought affiliation with other tribes; he was unsuccessful until he managed to negotiate a pact with the tribal chiefs of Medina, whereby he obtained their protection and became theocratic head and arbiter of the Medinan tribal confederation (ummah). Those Quraysh who joined him there were known as muhājirūn (refugees or emigrants), while his Medinan allies were called anṣār (supporters). The Muslim era dates from the Hijrah (Hegira (Hijrah))—Muhammad's move to Medina in AD 622. (For more detail about the life of Muhammad and the rise of Islam, see Islam (Islām); and Islamic world (Islāmic world).)

      Muhammad's men attacked a Quraysh caravan, thus breaking the vital security system established by the ʿAbd Manāf house, and hostilities broke out against his Meccan kinsmen. In Medina two problems confronted him—the necessity to enforce his role as arbiter and to raise supplies for his moves against Quraysh. He overcame internal opposition, removing in the process three Jewish tribes, whose properties he distributed among his followers. Externally, his ascendant power was demonstrated following Quraysh's failure to overrun Medina, when he declared it his own sacred enclave. Muhammad foiled Quraysh offensives and marched back to Mecca. After taking Mecca he became lord of the two sacred enclaves (al-ḥaramayn); however, even though he broke the power of some Quraysh lords, his policy thenceforth was to conciliate his Quraysh kinsmen.

The rise of Islam (Islāmic world)

 After Muhammad's entry into Mecca the tribes linked with Quraysh came to negotiate with him and to accept Islam; this meant little more than giving up their local deities and worshiping Allah alone. They had to pay the tax, but this was not novel because the tribal chiefs had already been taxed to protect the Meccan ḥaram. Many tribesmen probably waited to join the winner. Doubtless they cared little for Islam—many tried to break away (the so-called apostasy) on Muhammad's death.

      Islam, however, was destined for a world role. Under Muhammad's successors the expansionist urge of the tribes, temporarily united around the nucleus of the two sacred enclaves, coincided with the weakness of Byzantium and Sāsānian Persia. Tribes summoned to the banners of Islam launched a career of conquest that promised to satisfy the mandate of their new faith as well as the desire for booty and lands. With families and flocks, they left the peninsula. Population movements (human migration) of such magnitude affected all of Arabia; in Hadhramaut they possibly caused neglect of irrigation works, resulting in erosion of fertile lands. In Oman, too, when Arab tribes evicted the Persian ruling class, its complex irrigation system seems to have suffered severely. Many Omani Arabs about the mid-7th century left for Basra (in Iraq) and formed the influential Azd group there. Arabian Islam replaced Persian influence in the Bahrain district and Al-Ḥasā province in the northeast, and in Yemen.

      As the conquests far beyond Arabia poured loot into the Holy Cities (Mecca and Medina), they became wealthy centres of a sophisticated Arabian culture; Medina became a centre for Qurʾānic study, the evolution of Islamic law, and historical record. Under the caliphs—Muhammad's successors—Islam began to assume its characteristic shape; paradoxically, outside the cities it made little difference to Arabian life for centuries. Sharīʿah (Islamic law), promoted often by the Prophet's own descendants, developed in the urban centres; but outside them customary law persisted, sometimes diametrically opposed to Sharīʿah. In time the Hejaz and Yemen came to make notable contributions to Islamic culture, but Islam's basically Arabian nature first shows in the early mosque, which resembles the pre-Islamic temple, and in the pilgrimage rites, little altered from paganism.

Struggle for leadership

      In Arabia offices were generally hereditary and elective; but on Muhammad's death, Abū Bakr, the first caliph, aided by his own eventual successor, ʿUmar (Umar Iʿ), gained the leadership that Quraysh might have lost to others. They were not of the house of Hāshim, which, from the outset, felt cheated of its rights. Alīʿ, Muhammad's stepbrother and son-in-law, became the focus of legitimist claims to succeed the Prophet. ʿUthmān (Uthmān ibn ʿAffānʿ), however, the third caliph, was descended from both the Umayyah and Hāshim branches of ʿAbd Manāf. The latter half of ʿUthmān's reign coincided with a slackening in the tide of conquest. ʿUthmān was censured for diverting property, revenues, and booty in Iraq and Egypt to his Quraysh relatives. Squabbles with the tribes resulted in ʿUthmān's murder at Medina by opponents from Egypt. ʿAlī was proclaimed caliph by the anṣār, but he lost the political battle with ʿUthmān's powerful relative Muʿāwiyah (Muʿāwiyah I), governor of Syria, who demanded retaliation against the murderers. ʿAlī was later murdered by a Khārijite, a member of a dissident group. ʿAlī had quitted Medina for Iraq, and the political power centre of Islam left the peninsula, never to return. ʿAlī's posterity, however, played a key role in subsequent Arabian history.

The Umayyad (Umayyad Dynasty) and ʿAbbāsid periods

Regional centres

 Once Muʿāwiyah and the Umayyads had seized overlordship of the far-flung Islamic empire, which they ruled from Damascus, the Holy Cities remained only the spiritual capitals of Islam. The Umayyad caliphs appointed governors over the three crucial areas of the Hejaz, Yemen, and Oman; but in Iraq occasional powerful governors managed to control the Persian Gulf provinces, the gulf being an important maritime trade route, especially under the ʿAbbāsids. Occasionally Bahrain, Al-Ḥasā, and Najd also became regional centres of power within Arabia.

      The brief unity that Islam had imposed on the Arabian Peninsula was irrevocably broken as the main Islamic sects took shape—the “orthodox” Sunnites and the “legitimist” Shīʿites (who were distinguished from the Sunnites principally by their tenet that the imam of the Muslim community must be descended from ʿAlī by Muhammad's daughter Fāṭimah).

      Umayyad forces defeated a Quraysh pretender, ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Zubayr (Abd Allāh ibn az-Zubayrʿ), who had been proclaimed caliph in the Hejaz. Medina was captured; Mecca was besieged, the ḥaram bombarded, and the Kaʿbah set on fire (the sacred Black Stone—an object of veneration probably appropriated from pre-Islamic religion—was split in three places). The harsh Umayyad general al-Ḥajjāj (Ḥajjāj, al-) captured the city, and the pretender perished. The violation of the sacred enclaves by troops, including Arab Christians, was an act of sacrilege, but it broke any power remaining with the tribal “supporters” in Medina. The Prophet's original simple mosque in Medina, already enlarged by the early caliphs, was rebuilt by the Umayyad al-Walīd (it has been much altered and restored since). The Umayyads spent lavishly on the Holy Cities and developed Hejaz irrigation.

      The Umayyads collapsed before the ʿAbbāsid (Abbāsid Dynastyʿ)s in 750, a fall to which rivalry between the tribes, aligned as northern and southern Arabs, contributed materially. The ʿAbbāsids claimed adherence of the Legitimists, since their ancestor, the Prophet's uncle, was of the Hāshimite house. The ʿAbbāsids maintained a policy of strict adherence to religious observance, and they too devoted large sums to supporting and embellishing the Holy Cities, to which they sent annually a pilgrim caravan. Zubaydah, wife of the caliph Hārūn ar-Rashīd, celebrated for her public works, is said to have ordered the construction of the qanāt, a tunneled conduit that took water to Mecca. The threat of insurrection by Legitimist pretenders of the ʿAlīd branch of the Hāshimite house—who denied ʿAbbāsid claims to the caliphate as they had with the Umayyads—was a constant danger to the ʿAbbāsid caliphs. The ʿAlīd family developed both Sunnite and Shīʿite branches, but the latter split into a multiplicity of sects, of which the most important are the “Twelvers” ( Ithnā ʿAsharīyah, or Imāmīs), who recognized 12 imams, and the Ismāʿīlite “Seveners” (Ismāʿīlīyah, or Ismāʿīlīs, for Imam Ismāʿīl ibn Jaʿfar), who acknowledged only seven.

Yemen

      To quell a rising in Yemen, the ʿAbbāsid caliph al-Maʾmūn dispatched Ibn Ziyād, who refounded in 820 the southern city of Zabīd and became overlord of Yemen, Najrān, and Hadhramaut. About a century later, the Najāḥid (Najāḥid Dynasty)s—Ethiopian slaves or local Afro-Asians—supplanted the Ziyādid (Ziyādid Dynasty)s in Zabīd; however, though independent, neither dynasty renounced vague ʿAbbāsid suzerainty. The Banū Yaʿfur, lords north of Sanaa, expelled the Ziyādid governor and ruled independently from 861 to 997. Najāḥid rule ended when ʿAlī ibn Mahdī captured Zabīd in 1159.

The Qarmatians

      A more serious loss to ʿAbbāsid power in Arabia was occasioned by the appearance of Ismāʿīlīte propaganda in Yemen about 880, in eastern Arabia about 899, and even briefly in Oman. From Yemen, Ismāʿīlīs reached North Africa, where the Fāṭimid movement arose and conquered Egypt and for a time seriously threatened the ʿAbbāsids in Baghdad. The Qarmatians (Qarāmiṭah), an extremist offshoot of the Ismāʿīlīs, founded a state in Al-Ḥasā (Hasa, Al-), in northeastern Arabia. They set out to subvert Sunnite Islam. They were alleged to oppose many of the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, and they encouraged social equality for nomads, townspeople, and peasants. In 930 the Persian Gulf Qarmatians plundered Mecca, carrying off the Black Stone (Black Stone of Mecca) to Al-Ḥasā; they later returned it under Fāṭimid pressure. The Qarmatians were overthrown in 1077–78 by local Sunnite tribes, but Qarmatian influence persisted in Bahrain. From the 13th century, Twelver, or Imāmī, Shīʿism spread in Al-Ḥasā and Bahrain, while political power was held by the Shīʿite Sevener Jarwānid dynasty (1305 to about 1450).

      In 1037 ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad al-Ṣulayḥī of Yemen proclaimed the Fāṭimid caliph al-Mustanṣir but set up a dynasty in Sanaa. The Ṣulayḥid dynasty ruled most of upper Yemen, warred with the pro-ʿAbbāsid Najāḥids, and gained control of Aden.

Oman

      In the last decades of the 7th century the Ibāḍites (Ibāḍīyah), regarded as a moderate Khārijite sect, conquered southern Arabia, established a Kindite imam in Hadhramaut, occupied Sanaa, and took Mecca and Medina, before the Umayyads drove them back to Hadhramaut. Oman had early become Khārijite; the first Ibāḍite imam, al-Julandā ibn Masʿūd, was elected at about the beginning of the ʿAbbāsid caliphate. After the Ibāḍite invasion of southern Arabia in 893, Oman wavered between independence and subjection to the ʿAbbāsids and their Būyid or Seljuq supporters. By the 12th century the Seljuq hold had become rather precarious and local imams existed. During periods when the Indian trade used the Persian Gulf, Omani ports flourished; however, revenues diminished wherever trade was switched to the Red Sea. From the mid-12th century until 1406 the Nabhānid dynasty controlled the interior of Oman, but Turkic Oğuz (Ghuzz), Persians, and others variously possessed the coastal flank of the mountains.

The Zaydī (Zaydīyah)s and ʿAlawīs

      In Yemen lasting movements were being shaped by the close of the 9th century; the imam al-Hādī, a theocratic arbiter-ruler of traditional type, founded the ʿAlīd Zaydī dynasty in Ṣaʿdah of northern Yemen. About the mid-12th century a Zaydī imam extended his rule northward to Khaybar and Yanbuʿ (Yenbo) and southward to Zabīd.

      In the mid-10th century a refugee from disturbances in Iraq, Aḥmad ibn ʿĪsā al-Muhājir, arrived in Hadhramaut, then under Ibāḍite domination, and founded the ʿAlawite (ʿAlawī) Sayyid house, which was instrumental in spreading the Shāfiʿite (Shāfiʿī) school of Islamic law to India, Indonesia, and East Africa.

The Ayyūbid (Ayyūbid dynasty)s and Rasūlids

      The Ayyūbids of Egypt, when they invaded Yemen in 1173, found it parceled out among several dynasties. Ayyūbid objectives were probably part political, to find themselves a haven and destroy the Ismāʿīlites, and part economic, to control the India trade route. They remained in power until about 1229, generally controlling Aden, Hadhramaut, the Tihāmah, and the districts south of Sanaa. They introduced an administrative centralization apparently adapted from Syro-Egyptian organization.

      With the Ayyūbids arrived the emir ʿAlī ibn Rasūl, probably of Oğuz origin, whose descendants, at first Ayyūbid governors, grasped independence (c. 1229). The Rasūlid (Rasūlid dynasty) period is the most brilliant era of Islamic history in Yemen. These monarchs embellished their capital, Taʿizz, and other cities with fine buildings; several kings had a literary bent and, besides belles lettres, wrote treatises of some originality on various subjects. A fiscal survey still surviving provides an account of the trade through Al-Shiḥr, Aden, and the Tihāmah ports, with budgets for maintaining castles, troops, and hostages kept as surety of good tribal conduct. Aden served as an important trade centre in a flourishing period of Arab and Jewish commercial enterprise. The Rasūlids kept the southern coast under loose control up to Dhofar, even holding Hadhramaut to some extent and maintaining a squadron against pirates.

The sharifs of the Holy Cities

      At Mecca in the mid-10th century commenced the 1,000-year ascendancy of the ʿAlīd sharifian families. Mecca now became capital of the Hejaz, replacing Medina, the centre from which it had been ruled since the Prophet's days. The sharifs, though at times subject to such foreign overlords as the rulers of Egypt and of other parts of Arabia, exercised virtual independence. Throughout the ʿAbbāsid-Fāṭimid struggle, however, the sharifs took the opportunist line of supporting the side in ascendancy. When the Ayyūbid Saladin (Saladin), after deposing the Fāṭimids in 1171, brought back orthodoxy, the sharifs again recognized the ʿAbbāsids and Ayyūbids, and from being Zaydīs turned Sunnite Shāfiʿī.

      In 1181 the French crusader knight Reynaud de Châtillon (Reginald of Châtillon) raided Arabia. He intended to attack Medina but, switching his plan, raided in 1182 the Red Sea ports as far south as Bab El-Mandeb; Saladin destroyed Reynaud's vessels and so ended the threat to Mecca.

      By the early 13th century the sharifs had conquered the Hejaz, extending their power southward to Ḥalī; but, when they sought support from Egypt, Syria, or Yemen, the Rasūlids managed temporarily to dispute the overlordship of Mecca with the Egyptians.

      After Baghdad fell to the Mongols in 1258, the pilgrim caravan from Iraq lost all political significance for the Hejaz. As Iraq declined, Egyptian influence increased and the sharifs became steadily more dependent on the Mamlūks of Egypt.

Mamlūk and Ottoman influence

      Although the Yemeni Rasūlids sometimes disputed with the Mamlūks the overlordship of the Holy Cities, the Mamlūks generally prevailed. Egyptians and Meccans attacked al-Mujāhid the Rasūlid on a pilgrimage in 1350, and he was held prisoner in Egypt though released later.

The Mamlūks

      During the 14th and 15th centuries the Mamlūks became the dominant power, maintaining a political agent in the Hejaz and a body of cavalry in Mecca. Eventually they made or unmade the sharifian rulers, though the local Egyptian commander's policy sometimes ran counter to that of Cairo. From the mid-15th century the Mamlūks took charge of the customs at Jiddah, Mecca's port, allotting a portion of the revenue to the pasha of that port. Sharif Muḥammad ibn Barakāt (ruled 1425–53), however, received one-quarter of the value of all wrecked ships, one-quarter of all gifts arriving from abroad for the Meccans, and one-tenth of all imported goods. About half his income was distributed among the leading sharifian families.

      By the mid-15th century the foundering of the Rasūlid dynasty in Yemen made way for the Ṭāhirids; about the same time the Kathīrī (Kathiri sultanate) tribe of southeastern Arabia controlled Hadhramaut on behalf of the new dynasty.

      The beginning of the 16th century witnessed Portuguese penetration of the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. Though they failed to capture Aden, the Portuguese blockaded the Indian trade routes to Europe via the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, eventually causing severe, lasting damage to the economy of Muslim Middle Eastern countries.

The Ottoman (Ottoman Empire)s

      In 1517 the Ottoman sultan Selim I conquered Egypt and proclaimed the Hejaz part of the Ottoman dominions. Sharif Barakāt II of Mecca sent his son to negotiate at the Ottoman court and was confirmed as lord of the Holy Cities and Jiddah, subject to recognizing the Ottoman sultan as overlord. Selim's successor, Süleyman I the Magnificent, at the zenith of Ottoman power, munificently subsidized the Holy Cities, devoting large sums to new building.

      In Yemen the Mamlūks of Zabīd and Taʿizz acknowledged Ottoman authority, and Ottomans took over naval operations against the Portuguese in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. They seized Aden and forced the Yemenis into the mountains, capturing Sanaa and Shahārah; ultimately, however, the Yemenis drove them back into the Tihāmah. The Ottomans adopted Mocha (Al-Mukhā) in southern Yemen as their base, and Aden declined in importance. After conquering Iraq in 1534–36, the Ottomans could operate in the Persian Gulf against the Portuguese, who had taken Hormuz and Muscat in 1507 and Bahrain in 1521 and freely harried the Arabian coasts.

      The Ottomans reached as far as Al-Ḥasā by 1550 as they sought to curb Portuguese expansion. With Ottoman help, local merchants partially revived the spice trade, especially in pepper, but the Sunnite Banū Khālid expelled Ottoman forces in 1670. The Portuguese maintained themselves in Muscat until 1649, although they could hold Bahrain only until 1602, when they were expelled by Ṣafavid (Ṣafavid Dynasty) Iran, which ruled there until 1717. Many Bahraini Shīʿite scholars in the 17th century moved to Iran, where they led in the development of Shīʿite theology.

      Coastal Arabia was coming into direct contact with other Christian European maritime nations, which had begun their commercial penetration of the Indian Ocean. The Dutch, English, and French followed the Portuguese. The Western nations traded with Yemen through Mocha, whose coffee trade began in the 17th century; later the Europeans opened trading stations, or “factories,” there.

      By 1635 the Zaydī (Zaydīyah)s of Yemen, supported by the northern tribes, had expelled the Ottomans, and the Zaydīs had their first great, if short-lived, expansion when their tribes moved into much of southern Arabia. The broken terrain made it impossible for them to maintain their supremacy, and local tribes drove out Zaydī garrisons by about the second decade of the 18th century.

      In the 17th century Mecca and Medina saw a sharing of power between the locally autonomous sharifs and Ottoman Sunnite governors. Mecca was important in the spread and development of Islamic theology, even for Shīʿite thinkers, while the pilgrimage reinforced a common Muslim identity among the far-flung and diverse Muslim communities of the world. In the late 17th and 18th centuries, however, there was confusion and civil war in Mecca, with disputes among the sharifian tribes and struggles at Jiddah with Ottoman officials, who, notwithstanding the virtual independence of the sharifs, still dabbled in Hejaz politics. A new element was introduced in Najd (in central Arabia) in the mid-18th century with the rise of the puritan Wahhābīs, who, because the sharifs regarded them as dangerous heretics, for a time were refused permission to make the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Omani expansion

 In Oman events took an independent course. The Yaʿrubid dynasty—founded about 1624 when a member of the Yaʿrub tribe was elected imam—expelled the Portuguese from Muscat and set to harrying Portuguese possessions on the Indian coast. Embarking on expansion overseas—to Mombasa in 1698, then to Pemba, Zanzibar, and Kilwa—the Omanis became the supreme power on the coastal regions of the Indian Ocean, and European merchants feared marauding Omani fleets.

      The Persians captured Muscat in 1743. The Yaʿrubids dissolved into dynastic dispute, and a leader named Aḥmad ibn Saʿīd set to liberating Oman from the Persians. He became imam in 1749, founding the Āl Bū Saʿīd dynasty. This period in Oman is marked by the crystallization of the political alignment of the tribes of the Banū Ghāfir (Ghāfirī) against those of the Banū Hinā (Hināwī).

      During the 18th century the growth of the East India Company and British paramountcy in India began to affect Arabian politics and commerce most directly in the southern coastal region, while the interior was little concerned at first. Coastal Arabia now came fully into the world economy through commerce in coffee, slaves, pearls, and dates and the continuing pilgrimage to Mecca. Oman, Iran, and Sunnite Arab tribes struggled to dominate the coasts of the Persian Gulf, while a series of agreements later paved the way for British control in that area.

The Wahhābīs

      The Ottomans, clinging to the Hejaz for religious prestige and claiming to be custodians of the Holy Cities, had little power outside their garrisons in those cities and along the pilgrim route. The bribes they gave the nomads for allowing the caravans to pass, and the need to keep food subsidies for Mecca and Medina, however, prevented their expulsion.

Religious reform

      The Wahhābī movement, which introduced a new factor into the pattern of Arabian politics, was founded by Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (Wahhāb, Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-), a reformer influenced by the writings of the 13th–14th-century pietist theologian Ibn Taymīyah, of the strict Ḥanbalī school of Islamic law. It was ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's intention to purify Islam of polytheism and to return it to an idealized primitive state. Expelled from his hometown in Najd, he moved to Al-Dirʿīyah, a village that had never been ruled by the Ottomans, and obtained the protection and the adherence of its chief, Muḥammad ibn Saʿūd.

Resistance to the Ottomans

      Propagating the doctrines of ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, Ibn Saʿūd and his son mastered all Najd. Late in the 18th century the Wahhābīs began raiding Iraq and then besieged Mecca, which they definitively conquered in 1806. The Ottomans became so alarmed at the Saʿūdī-Wahhābī peril that they urged Muḥammad ʿAlī, viceroy of Egypt, to drive the Wahhābīs from the Holy Cities. Egyptian troops invaded Arabia, and after a bitter seven-year struggle the viceroy's forces recaptured Mecca and Medina. The Wahhābī leader was forced to surrender his capital and was then beheaded. Egyptian occupation of western Arabia continued some 20 years.

      The second Saʿūdī-Wahhābī kingdom began when Turkī, of a collateral Saʿūdī branch, revolted and in 1824 captured Riyadh in Najd and made it his capital. He was succeeded by his son Fayṣal. By 1833 Wahhābī overlordship was generally recognized in the Persian Gulf, though the Egyptians remained in the Hejaz.

      After Fayṣal's death the fratricidal ambitions of his two eldest sons allowed Ibn Rashīd, ruler of Ḥāʾil in Jabal Shammar to the north, to take Riyadh. Ibn Rashīd ruled northern Arabia until he died in 1897. Meanwhile, the Saʿūdīs in 1871 had lost the fertile Al-Ḥasā to the Ottoman Turks, and the family ultimately took refuge in nearby Kuwait.

 Ibn Rashīd's son and successor became involved in a struggle with the sheikh of Kuwait, which enabled the greatest of the Saʿūdīs, Ibn Saʿūd (ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz II), to retake Riyadh in 1902 and establish the third Saʿūdī kingdom. By 1904, through raiding and skirmishing, Ibn Saʿūd had recovered much of the earlier Saʿūdī territory. In 1912, to bring the nomads under control, he set up agricultural settlements colonized by Wahhābī warrior groups called Ikhwān.

      When World War I broke out, Kuwait renounced allegiance to the Ottoman Empire. Ibn Saʿūd fought the pro-Ottoman Rashīdīs but otherwise remained inactive.

The Hejaz

      The Meccan sharifs were merely the nominees of Egypt until 1840, when the Egyptians evacuated Arabia. Thereafter the sharifs were usually semiautonomous beside the Ottoman governors of the Hejaz. Improved communications after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 allowed the Ottoman Empire to send troops by sea to Arabia. An attempt to establish direct administration in the Hejaz in the 1880s failed when the sharifs and the population objected to Ottoman reforms. Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, appointed grand sharif in 1908, also successfully resisted Ottoman measures aimed at centralization by means of the new Hejaz Railway from Damascus to Medina.

Yemen

      In 1839 the British took Aden, ruling it and the island of Socotra (at the entrance to the Gulf of Aden) from India; the port of Aden became valuable as a coaling station. In 1849 the Ottoman Turks occupied the Yemeni Tihāmah but could not hold Sanaa in the interior until 1872. They were never able to break the resistance of the Zaydī tribes completely and were forced to an accommodation with the imam, Yaḥyā ibn Muḥammad (Yaḥyā), a few years before World War I. Aden developed into a large town and port, especially after the Suez Canal opened. Protectorate treaties concluded with the independent tribes around Aden were gradually extended inland. Many Yemenis worked overseas, especially in India and Southeast Asia.

The gulf states

      In 1835 the Qawāsim coastal tribes of the Persian Gulf, earlier conquered and inspired by the Wahhābīs, were induced to bind themselves by a maritime truce to end hostilities with the British by sea, and the truce was made permanent in 1853. In Oman, Sulṭān ibn Aḥmad, revolting against his uncle the imam in 1793, gained mastery of the coastal towns. The British made Omani Zanzibar, in East Africa, a protectorate in 1890. The extension of British influence over Bahrain culminated in 1900 with the opening of a British political agency. The British also persuaded the gulf states, Zanzibar, and the Ottomans to help suppress the slave trade.

World War I

      The Ottoman Empire entered World War I holding all of western Arabia and supported in central northern Arabia by the Rashīdīs of Ḥāʾil. Earlier Ottoman attempts to extend the empire to eastern Arabia, however, had been countered by the British, who were then paramount in the gulf and in treaty relation with the Arab sheikhdoms there. Sharif Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī of Mecca, with assurance of British support, revolted against the Ottomans in June 1916, taking Mecca but failing to capture Medina. The British also supported the Idrīsī in Asir against the Ottomans. In Yemen Ottoman forces entered the Aden Protectorate, but the war subsequently settled down to a stalemate.

  Two sons of Sharif Ḥusayn of Mecca, Fayṣal (Fayṣal I) and Abdullah (Abdullāh Iʿ), stirred up the Hejazi tribes against the Ottomans and, assisted by British supplies and liaison officers, including the famous T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence, T E) (“Lawrence of Arabia”), moved northward to Transjordan along the right flank of the British armies and into Damascus (1918). Fayṣal set up an Arab government there, only to be dislodged by the French in 1920. In 1921 he was made king of Iraq, Abdullah emir of Transjordan.

Wahhābī-sharifian dispute

      During the war, relations between Sharif Ḥusayn and Ibn Saʿūd worsened. In 1919 the dispute broke into an open clash. The Wahhābīs won so decisive a victory that they might have advanced unopposed into the Hejaz but for pressures on Ibn Saʿūd by the British. Instead, Ibn Saʿūd concentrated his forces against Ibn Rashīd, mastering all Shammar territory and capturing Ḥāʾil in 1921.

      Meanwhile, the grand sharif refused the terms of a treaty with Britain, mainly because of the Balfour Declaration, which approved a national home in Palestine for the Jews. The Wahhābīs marched into the Hejaz in 1924, and by October Ḥusayn was ruler no longer.

Saudi Arabia

      Ibn Saʿūd's zealous Wahhābī followers, arriving in the more cosmopolitan atmosphere of Hejaz society, were now exposed to the world of Islam at large. Ibn Saʿūd managed the resulting problems with firmness and tact. He had furthermore to enforce his rule over the tribes impatient with centralized government. His tough action with them won, and he set out to develop security, economic reform, and communications.

      On Ibn Saʿūd's southern border the Idrīsī sayyids of Asir had risen to power in the first decade of the 20th century. When in 1926 and 1930 Ibn Saʿūd concluded agreements with the Idrīsī, rendering Asir a virtual dependency of Saudi Arabia, Imam Yaḥyā of Yemen took Al-Ḥudaydah and southern Asir. Saudi troops swept into the Yemeni Tihāmah, but they withdrew after the Treaty of Al-Ṭāʾif in 1934, which acknowledged Saudi rule over Asir.

      In the postwar years Britain and Saudi Arabia concluded agreements defining the frontiers with the British mandates of Jordan and Iraq (though most Saudi borders remained uncertain), and by treaty in 1927 Ibn Saʿūd was recognized as a sovereign, independent ruler.

Yemen

      Imam Yaḥyā had to virtually conquer Yemen, in the Zaydī interest, after the Ottoman (Ottoman Empire) departure; by stern measures he established security. He refused to recognize the British-backed border between the Aden protectorates and Yemen. The British in the later 1930s pacified and, to a limited degree, developed their protectorates.

Postwar Arabia, to 1962

      The post-World War I settlement and centralization of power in the hands of Yaḥyā, Ibn Saʿūd, and the British gave Arabia a large measure of internal peace and external security, which endured until 1962. A new factor in the 1930s was the discovery of immense quantities of petroleum in the deserts. In Bahrain oil was struck in June 1932. The American-owned Arabian Standard Oil Company (Aramco) (later Aramco) discovered oil in the Dhahran area of Saudi Arabia, and the first shipments left in September 1938. The Kuwait Oil Company, a joint Anglo-American enterprise, began production in June 1946. Thereafter oil was discovered in many other places, mostly in the Persian Gulf. Vast petroleum revenues brought enormous changes to Saudi Arabia and transformed the gulf states. The market for labour brought migrants from Yemen and other Arab countries.

      Egypt, and later Syria and Iraq, utilized resentment of Israel and the appeal of Pan-Arab nationalism in the 1950s and '60s to try to undermine “feudal” Arab kingdoms and to remove British and American influence from Arabia.

Arabia since 1962

 Political changes in Yemen and Saudi Arabia during the early 1960s epitomized a vast transformation of the Arabian Peninsula that affected the lives of most of its inhabitants. In 1962 Egyptian-trained Yemeni officers led a coup d'état and invited Egypt to send troops to support the republic. The imam's forces, although backed by Saudi Arabia during five years of war against large Egyptian armies, ultimately lost, and the republic was triumphant. Following the death of King Ibn Saʿūd of Saudi Arabia in 1953, his ineffective heir, Saʿūd, was replaced in a royal family coup d'état in 1964 by another son, Fayṣal, who initiated a number of modernizing changes.

      The power of governments increased in all the countries of the peninsula as oil production provided most ruling elites with unprecedented wealth. Religion and dynasty, the two pillars of most earlier regimes, were increasingly supplemented by the distribution to the people of oil revenues; individual national identities also began slowly to develop. Governments whose effective jurisdiction had often been limited to the coast now expanded their powers into the interior, while commercial, social, cultural, and diplomatic interactions with the rest of the world played a larger role in determining local matters.

      President Gamal Abdel Nasser (Nasser, Gamal Abdel) of Egypt applied political pressure to remove the British from Aden, and Britain left Aden and South Yemen in 1967. A violently leftist group, the National Liberation Front (NLF), proclaimed the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (Yemen [Aden]), which became communist and formed links with the Soviet Union.

      After a compromise between royalists and republicans, northern Yemen, with its capital at Sanaa, was ruled by relatively liberal military governments, with army officers as presidents, including the long-lasting ʿAlī ʿAbd Allāh Ṣāliḥ (Ṣāliḥ, ʿAli ʿAbd Allāh), who first took office in 1978. North Yemen gained considerable income from the hundreds of thousands of Yemenis who worked in oil-rich Saudi Arabia; in the 1980s both Yemens discovered oil fields of their own.

      Over several years a struggle for control of Yemen (Aden) waged within the ruling political party resulted in a brief civil war in 1986. The collapse of communism in Europe and the yearning of Yemenis for the union of the two parts of Yemen in the north and south, despite the great differences between them, resulted in the proclamation of their unification on May 22, 1990.

      In Oman, after a palace revolution in 1970, the new sultan, Qābūs, opened a program of modernization, welfare, and reform. Much oil revenue initially had to be devoted to repelling rebel attacks, supported from Yemen (Aden), but the rebels were defeated in 1975. A mutual accord was signed in 1982.

      At the entrance to the Persian Gulf, the Trucial States had acquired world importance from their vast oil riches. In the new alignments following Britain's withdrawal, the former Trucial States—Abu Dhabi, Dubayy, Ash-Shāriqah, ʿAjmān, Al-Fujayrah, and Umm al-Qaywayn—proclaimed themselves the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in 1971. They were joined by Raʾs Al-Khaymah in 1972.

      Kuwait saw the British withdraw in 1961, but Iraq claimed the country, and it was deterred only by British and later by Arab armed forces. In 1970–71 Bahrain and Qatar became independent and subsequently acquired control of Western oil concerns operating in their territories. Their way of life was transformed as oil revenues and the service sector of the economy grew.

The Iran-Iraq War

      A fresh threat to the rich oil states of the gulf arose with the revolution in Iran in 1978–79 and with the outbreak of the Iran-Iraq War in 1980. Islamic fundamentalism in the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini's Iran struck an answering chord with Shīʿites and Iranian workers in the Arabian states, which gave financial support to Iraq. U.S. President Jimmy Carter and his successor in 1981, Ronald Reagan, pledged American support to keep open the Strait of Hormuz (Hormuz, Strait of), through which some 60 percent of the industrial world's oil supply was being transported.

      In response to the tensions of the Iran-Iraq War, Saudi Arabia and other gulf Arab states expanded their military power, but the small size of their populations limited their military effectiveness. In 1979 Saudi religious extremists seized the Al-Ḥaram mosque (Great Mosque) of Mecca and revolted against the Saʿūdi dynasty. They were forcibly repressed, and few changes were made in the Saudi government.

      In March 1981 Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates formed the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) to promote stability and cooperation in the gulf region; the GCC coordinated their economic and defensive efforts. Expected economic growth in the entire region was slowed by the fall in oil prices in the mid-1980s, and the countries of Arabia made plans to diversify their economies and to institute austerity measures in the face of falling prices.

Robert Bertram Serjeant William L. Ochsenwald

The 1991 Persian Gulf War

      Following the end of the Iran-Iraq War in 1988, President Saddam Hussein (Ṣaddām Ḥussein) of Iraq faced massive economic problems, including debts owed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. The Iraqi president also viewed himself as the leader of Pan-Arab nationalism and socialism, two ideologies firmly opposed by the conservative monarchies that controlled most of the Arabian Peninsula outside of Yemen.

      Claiming that Kuwait had historically been part of Iraq and that Kuwaiti oil policy had robbed Iraq of much-needed revenue, Saddam Hussein ordered an invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990. Kuwait itself fell quickly to the Iraqis, but the Kuwaiti royal family established a government-in-exile in Saudi Arabia, while hundreds of thousands of Kuwaitis fled to several gulf countries. Many Kuwaiti citizens remaining in the emirate engaged in guerrilla warfare against the invaders.

      Initially Saudi Arabia and the other GCC countries reacted cautiously, but, when the United States suggested that Iraq might next invade Saudi Arabia, most Arabian Peninsula countries took a firm stand against the Iraqi annexation of Kuwait. Hundreds of thousands of soldiers and many warships and aircraft from a wide variety of countries acted under the authority of United Nations resolutions as they assembled in Saudi Arabia.

      Since Yemen held a seat on the United Nations Security Council, its reluctance to authorize force to oust Iraq from Kuwait was particularly noteworthy; Saudi Arabia in retribution compelled hundreds of thousands of Yemeni workers to leave the kingdom. The GCC countries provided military facilities for the coalition armed forces. The military contingents coming from the various Islamic countries acted together under the command of Saudi generals; troops from Western nations ultimately coordinated their activities under U.S. command.

      Iraq attempted to link a solution of the Kuwait question to the resolution of the Palestinian Arab issue, but the coalition countries insisted on unconditional Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait. After Iraq rejected this demand, the coalition launched an air war against Iraq and Iraqi-occupied Kuwait on January 16–17, 1991. A ground campaign that began on February 24 lasted only four days and secured the eviction of Iraq from Kuwait. Iraqi military and civilian casualties were heavy, but the coalition armed forces suffered fewer than 1,500 killed or wounded in action.

      The Arabian Peninsula countries had not seen such a far-reaching external military intervention in their affairs since the days of Muḥammad ʿAlī and the first Saʾūdī kingdom. As a result, the diplomatic, military, and political structures and patterns created after the withdrawal of the British imperial presence in the early 1960s were placed in question.

William L. Ochsenwald

Additional Reading

Archaeology and early history are described in Richard Le Baron Bowen, Jr., and Frank P. Albright, Archaeological Discoveries in South Arabia (1958); G. Lankester Harding, Archaeology in the Aden Protectorates (1964); F.V. Winnett and W.L. Reed, Ancient Records from North Arabia (1970); and Brian Doe, Southern Arabia (1971). General historical studies include J. Wellhausen, The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall (1927, reprinted 1973; originally published in German, 1902), covering the Islāmic empire AD 622–750, still useful though some views are now disputed; and Hermann V. Wissmann, Zur Geschichte und Landeskunde von Alt-Südarabien (1964). The study of more recent history should begin with the brilliant but controversial analysis of Khaldoun Hasan al-Naqeeb, Society and State in the Gulf and Arab Peninsula: A Different Perspective (1990; originally published in Arabic, 1987). Useful surveys also include R.B. Serjeant, Studies in Arabian History and Civilisation (1981); and Ian Richard Netton (ed.), Arabia and the Gulf: From Traditional Society to Modern States (1986). More specialized works are Nigel Groom, Frankincense and Myrrh: A Study of the Arabian Incense Trade (1981); M.J. Kister, Studies in Jāhiliyya and Early Islam (1980); R.B. Serjeant, The Portuguese off the South Arabian Coast: Hadrami Chronicles, with Yemeni and European Accounts of Dutch Pirates off Mocha in the Seventeenth Century (1963, reprinted 1974); Zāmil Muḥammad al-Rashīd, Suʿūdī Relations with Eastern Arabia and ʿUmān, 1800–1870 (1981); William Ochsenwald, Religion, Society, and the State in Arabia: The Hijaz Under Ottoman Control, 1840–1908 (1984); and John C. Wilkinson, Arabia's Frontiers: The Story of Britain's Boundary Drawing in the Desert (1991).

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