algebra, elementary

Introduction

      branch of mathematics that deals with the general properties of numbers and the relations between them. Algebra is fundamental not only to all further mathematics and statistics but to the natural sciences, computer science, economics, and business. Along with writing, it is a cornerstone of modern scientific and technological civilization. Earlier civilizations—Babylonian, Greek, Indian, Chinese, and Islamic—all contributed in important ways to the development of elementary algebra. It was left for Renaissance Europe, though, to develop an efficient system for representing all real numbers (real number) and a symbolism for representing unknowns, relations between them, and operations.

      Elementary algebra is concerned with the following topics:

● Real and complex numbers (complex number), constants, and variables—collectively known as algebraic quantities.

● Rules of operation for such quantities.

● Geometric representations of such quantities.

● Formation of expressions involving algebraic quantities.

● Rules for manipulating such expressions.

● Formation of sentences, also called equations, involving algebraic expressions.

● Solution of equations and systems of equations.

Algebraic quantities

      The principal distinguishing characteristic of algebra is the use of simple symbols to represent numerical quantities and mathematical operations. Following a system that originated with the 17th-century French thinker René Descartes (Descartes, René), letters near the beginning of the alphabet (a, b, c,…) typically represent known, but arbitrary, numbers in a problem, while letters near the end of the alphabet, especially x, y, and z, represent unknown quantities, or variables. The + and − signs indicate addition and subtraction of these quantities, but multiplication is simply indicated by adjacent letters. Thus, ax represents the product of a by x. This simple expression can be interpreted, for example, as the interest earned in one year by a sum of a dollars invested at an annual rate of x. It can also be interpreted as the distance traveled in a hours by a car moving at x miles per hour. Such flexibility of representation is what gives algebra its great utility.

      Another feature that has greatly increased the range of algebraic applications is the geometric representation of algebraic quantities. For instance, to represent the real numbers, a straight line is imagined that is infinite in both directions. An arbitrary point O can be chosen as the origin, representing the number 0, and another arbitrary point U chosen to the right of O. The segment OU (or the point U) then represents the unit length, or the number 1. The rest of the positive numbers correspond to multiples of this unit length—so that 2, for example, is represented by a segment OV, twice as long as OU and extended in the same direction. Similarly, the negative real numbers extend to the left of O. A straight line whose points are thus identified with the real numbers is called a number line. Many earlier mathematicians realized there was a relationship between all points on a straight line and all real numbers, but it was the German mathematician Richard Dedekind (Dedekind, Richard) who made this explicit as a postulate in his Continuity and Irrational Numbers (1872).

 In the Cartesian coordinate system (named for Descartes) of analytic geometry, one horizontal number line (usually called the x-axis) and one vertical number line (the y-axis) intersect at right angles at their common origin to provide coordinates for each point in the plane. For example, the point on a vertical line through some particular x on the x-axis and on the horizontal line through some y on the y-axis is represented by the pair of real numbers (x, y). A similar geometric representation (see the figure—>) exists for the complex numbers, where the horizontal axis corresponds to the real numbers and the vertical axis corresponds to the imaginary numbers (imaginary number) (where the imaginary unit i is equal to the square root of −1). The algebraic form of complex numbers is x + iy, where x represents the real part and iy the imaginary part.

 This pairing of space and number gives a means of pairing algebraic expressions, or functions (function), in a single variable with geometric objects in the plane, such as straight lines and circles. The result of this pairing may be thought of as the graph (see the figure—>) of the expression for different values of the variable.

Algebraic expressions

      Any of the quantities mentioned so far may be combined in expressions according to the usual arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication. Thus, ax + by and axx + bx + c are common algebraic expressions. However, exponential notation is commonly used to avoid repeating the same term in a product, so that one writes x² for xx and y³ for yyy. (By convention x⁰ = 1.) Expressions built up in this way from the real and complex numbers, the algebraic quantities a, b, c, …, x, y, z, and the three above operations are called polynomials—a word introduced in the late 16th century by the French mathematician François Viète (Viète, François, Seigneur De La Bigotiere) from the Greek polys (“many”) and the Latin nominem (“name” or “term”). One way of characterizing a polynomial is by the number of different unknown, or variable, quantities in it. Another way of characterizing a polynomial is by its degree. The degree of a polynomial in one unknown is the largest power of the unknown appearing in it. The expressions ax + b, ax² + bx + c, and ax³ + bx² + cx + d are general polynomials in one unknown (x) of degrees 1, 2, and 3, respectively. When only one unknown is involved, it does not matter which letter is used for it. One could equally well write the above polynomials as ay + b, az² + bz + c, and at³ + bt² + ct + d.

      Because some insight into complicated functions can be obtained by approximating them with simpler functions, polynomials of the first degree were investigated early on. In particular, ax + by = c, which represents a straight line, and ax + by + cz = e, which represents a plane in three-dimensional space, were among the first algebraic equations studied.

 Polynomials can be combined according to the three arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication, and the result is again a polynomial. To simplify expressions obtained by combining polynomials in this way, one uses the distributive law, as well as the commutative (commutative law) and associative laws (associative law) for addition and multiplication (see the table—>). Until very recently a major drawback of algebra was the extreme tedium of routine manipulation of polynomials, but now a number of symbolic algebra programs make this work as easy as typing the expressions into a computer.

      By extending the operations on polynomials to include division, or ratios of polynomials, one obtains the rational functions. Examples of such rational functions are 2/3x and (a + bx²)/(c + dx² + ex⁵). Working with rational functions allows one to introduce the expression 1/x and its powers, 1/x², 1/x³, … (often written x⁻¹, x⁻², x⁻³, …). When the degree of the numerator of a rational function is at least as large as that of its denominator, it is possible to divide the numerator by the denominator much as one divides one integer by another. In this way one can write any rational function as the sum of a polynomial and a rational function in which the degree of the numerator is less than that of the denominator. For example,

(x⁸ − x⁵ + 3x³ + 2)/(x³ − 1) = x⁵ + 3 + 5/(x³ − 1).

Since this process reduces the degrees of the terms involved, it is especially useful for calculating the values of rational functions and for dealing with them when they arise in calculus.

Solving algebraic equations (algebraic equation)

      For theoretical work and applications one often needs to find numbers that, when substituted for the unknown, make a certain polynomial equal to zero. Such a number is called a “ root” of the polynomial. For example, the polynomial

−16t² + 88t + 48

represents the height above Earth at t seconds of a projectile thrown straight up at 88 feet per second from the top of a tower 48 feet high. (The 16 in the formula comes from one-half the acceleration of gravity, 32 feet per second per second.) By setting the equation equal to zero and factoring it as (4t − 24)(−4t − 2) = 0, the equation's one positive root is found to be 6, meaning that the object will hit the ground about 6 seconds after it is thrown. (This problem also illustrates the important algebraic concept of the zero factor property: if ab = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0.)

 The theorem that every polynomial has as many complex roots as its degree is known as the fundamental theorem of algebra and was first proved in 1799 by the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (Gauss, Carl Friedrich). Simple formulas exist for finding the roots of the general polynomials of degrees one and two (see the table—>), and much less simple formulas exist for polynomials of degrees three and four. The French mathematician Évariste Galois (Galois, Évariste) discovered, shortly before his death in 1832, that no such formula exists for a general polynomial of degree greater than four. Many ways exist, however, of approximating the roots of these polynomials.

Solving systems of algebraic equations

      An extension of the study of single equations involves multiple equations that are solved simultaneously—so-called systems of equations. For example, the intersection of two straight lines, ax + by = c and Ax + By = C, can be found algebraically by discovering the values of x and y that simultaneously solve each equation. The earliest systematic development of methods for solving systems of equations occurred in ancient China. An adaptation of a problem from the 1st-century-AD Chinese classic Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Procedures illustrates how such systems arise. Imagine there are two kinds of wheat and that you have four sheaves of the first type and five sheaves of the second type. Although neither of these is enough to produce a bushel of wheat, you can produce a bushel by adding three sheaves of the first type to five of the second type, or you can produce a bushel by adding four sheaves of the first type to two of the second type. What fraction of a bushel of wheat does a sheaf of each type of wheat contain?

      Using modern notation, suppose we have two types of wheat, respectively, and x and y represent the number of bushels obtained per sheaf of the first and second types, respectively. Then the problem leads to the system of equations:

3x + 5y = 1 (bushel)

4x + 2y = 1 (bushel)

      A simple method for solving such a system is first to solve either equation for one of the variables. For example, solving the second equation for y yields y = 1/2 − 2x. The right side of this equation can then be substituted for y in the first equation (3x + 5y = 1), and then the first equation can be solved to obtain x (= 3/14). Finally, this value of x can be substituted into one of the earlier equations to obtain y (= 1/14). Thus, the first type yields 3/14 bushels per sheaf and the second type yields 1/14. Note that the solution (3/14, 1/14) would be difficult to discern by graphing techniques. In fact, any precise value based on a graphing solution may be only approximate; for example, the point (0.0000001, 0) might look like (0, 0) on a graph, but even such a small difference could have drastic consequences in the real world.

      Rather than individually solving each possible system of two equations in two unknowns, the general system can be solved. To return to the general equations given above:

ax + by = c

Ax + By = C

      The solutions are given by x = (Bc − bC)/(aB − Ab) and y = (Ca − cA)/(aB − Ab). Note that the denominator of each solution, (aB − Ab), is the same. It is called the determinant of the system, and systems in which the denominator is equal to zero have either no solution (in which case the equations represent parallel lines) or infinitely many solutions (in which case the equations represent the same line).

      One can generalize simultaneous systems to consider m equations in n unknowns. In this case, one usually uses subscripted letters x₁, x₂, …, x_n for the unknowns and a_{1, 1}, …, a_{1, n}; a_{2, 1}, …, a_{2, n}; …; a_{m, 1}, …, a_{m, n} for the coefficients of each equation, respectively. When n = 3 one is dealing with planes in three-dimensional space, and for higher values of n one is dealing with hyperplanes in spaces of higher dimension. In general, n equations in m unknowns have infinitely many solutions when m < n and no solutions when m > n. The case m = n is the only case where there can exist a unique solution.

      Large systems of equations are generally handled with matrices (matrix), especially as implemented on computers.

John L. Berggren

Additional Reading

Kenn Amdahl and Jim Loats, Algebra Unplugged (1995), is a humorous introduction that stresses concepts rather than formulas to motivate the uninitiated or befuddled to approach the subject. Peter H. Selby, Practical Algebra: A Self-Teaching Guide, 2nd ed., rev. by Steve Slavin (1991), an excellent first or refresher textbook, teaches through thousands of practice problems and review tests. Mildred Johnson, How to Solve Word Problems in Algebra, 2nd ed. (2000), presents a visual approach to solving many types of word problems.

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