Albanian literature

      the body of written works produced in the Albanian language. The Ottoman Empire, which ruled Albania from the 15th to the early 20th century, prohibited publications in Albanian, an edict that became a serious obstacle to the development of literature in that language. Books in Albanian were rare until the late 19th century.

      The oldest example of writing in Albanian is a book-length manuscript on theology, philosophy, and history by Teodor Shkodrani that dates from 1210; it was discovered in the late 1990s in the Vatican archives. Among other early examples of written Albanian are a baptismal formula (1462) and the book Meshari (1555; “The Liturgy,” or “The Missal”) by the Roman Catholic prelate Gjon Buzuku. The publication in 1635 of the first Albanian dictionary was a milestone in the history of Albanian literature. The author of the Dictionarium latino-epiroticum (“Latin-Albanian Dictionary”) was Frang Bardhi, a Catholic bishop.

      The earliest works of Albanian literature were written by Catholic clerics, whose ties with the Vatican enabled them to circumvent Turkish restrictions by publishing their works outside Albania, mostly in Rome. The earliest books, from the mid-16th to the mid-18th century, were mostly religious and didactic in character. A change occurred with the advent of Romanticism and the nationalist movements of the 18th and 19th centuries. The range of genres broadened to encompass folklore and linguistics, and books of a Romantic and patriotic nature also emerged.

      The first writers to cultivate the new genres were Albanians who had migrated centuries earlier to Sicily and southern Italy. The Arbëresh writers, as they are commonly called, profited from the absence of state-imposed restrictions in Italy and published freely to preserve and celebrate their ethnic Albanian heritage. (The term Arbëresh denotes both their dialect and their ethnic origins; it is derived from the word Arbëria, the name by which Albania was known during the Middle Ages.) Foremost among Arbëresh writers was Jeronim (Girolamo) de Rada, regarded by some critics as the finest Romantic poet in the Albanian language. His major work, best known by its Albanian title Këngët e Milosaos (1836; “The Songs of Milosao”), is a Romantic ballad infused with patriotic sentiments. De Rada was also the founder of the first Albanian periodical, Fiámuri Arbërit (“The Albanian Flag”), which was published from 1883 to 1888. Other Arbëresh writers of note are Francesco Santori, a novelist, poet, and playwright; Dhimitër Kamarda (Demetrio Camarda), a philologist and folklorist; Zef (Giuseppe) Serembe, a poet; Gavril (Gabriele) Dara (the younger), a poet and savant; and Zef Skiroi (Giuseppe Schirò), a poet, publicist, and folklorist.

      Literary activity gathered momentum in the wake of the formation of the Albanian League of Prizren, the first Albanian nationalist organization. The league, founded in 1878, spurred Albanians to intensify their efforts to win independence from the Ottoman Empire, an event that would occur in 1912. Albanians in exile—in Constantinople (Istanbul); Bucharest, Rom.; Sofia, Bulg.; Cairo; and Boston—formed patriotic and literary societies to promote the propagation of literature and culture as instruments for gaining independence. The national motif became the hallmark of the literature of this period, known as Rilindja (“Renaissance”), and writers of the time came to be known collectively as Rilindas.

      The spirit of the Albanian Renaissance found expression, above all, in the work of the poet Naim Frashëri. His moving tribute to pastoral life in Bagëti e bujqësia (1886; “Cattle and Crops”; Eng. trans. Frashëri's Song of Albania) and his epic poem Istori e Skënderbeut (1898; “The History of Skanderbeg”)—eulogizing Skanderbeg, Albania's medieval national hero—stirred the Albanian nation. Today many regard him as the national poet of Albania.

      Albanian literature took a historic step forward in 1908 when Albanian linguists, scholars, and writers convened the Congress of Monastir (in what is now Bitola, Maced.), which adopted the modern Albanian alphabet based on Latin letters. The congress was presided over by Mid'hat Frashëri, who subsequently wrote Hi dhe shpuzë (1915; “Ashes and Embers”), a book of short stories and reflections of a didactic nature.

      At the turn of the 20th century, a note of realism, combined with cynicism, appeared in Albanian literature as writers sought to identify and combat the ills of Albanian society, such as poverty, illiteracy, blood feuds, and bureaucracy. The major authors of the time were Gjergj Fishta, Faik Konitza (Konica), and Fan S. Noli. Fishta—a native of Shkodër, the literary centre of northern Albania—was a powerful satirist but is best known for his long ballad Lahuta e malcís (1937; The Highland Lute), which celebrates the valour and virtues of Albanian highlanders. Konitza, a foremost polemicist, is the pioneer figure in Albanian literary criticism. As the publisher of the review Albania (1897–1909), he exerted great influence on aspiring writers and the development of Albanian culture. Noli is esteemed as a poet, critic, and historian and is known in particular for his translations of William Shakespeare, Henrik Ibsen, Miguel de Cervantes, Edgar Allan Poe, and others. Among the lesser figures in this period are Asdren (acronym of Aleks Stavre Drenova), a poet; Çajupi (in full Andon Zako Çajupi), a poet and playwright; Ernest Koliqi, a short-story writer, poet, and novelist; Ndre Mjeda, a poet and linguist; and Migjeni (acronym of Milosh Gjergj Nikolla), a poet and novelist.

 A lone figure in the landscape of 20th-century Albanian literature is the poet Lasgush Poradeci (pseudonym of Llazar Gusho, of which Lasgush is a contraction). Breaking with tradition and conventions, he introduced a new genre with his lyrical poetry, which is tinged with mystical overtones. Writers in post-World War II Albania laboured under state-imposed guidelines summed up by the term Socialist Realism. Nevertheless, the most gifted writers by and large overcame these restrictions and produced works of intrinsic literary value. Among the most successful were Dritëro Agolli, Fatos Arapi, Naum Prifti, and Ismail Kadare (Kadare, Ismail). The first two are known primarily as poets, while Prifti's reputation rests mainly on his books of short stories, the most popular of which is Çezma e floririt (1960; The Golden Fountain). The outstanding figure in modern Albanian literature is Kadare, whose groundbreaking novel Gjenerali i ushtrisë së vdekur (1963; The General of the Dead Army) catapulted him to worldwide fame.

      Albanian literature has traditionally been written in the two main Albanian dialects: Gheg (Geg) in the north and Tosk in the south. In 1972, however, a Congress of Orthography held in Tiranë, Alb., formulated rules for a unified literary language based on the two dialects. Since then, most authors have employed the new literary idiom.

Peter R. Prifti

Additional Reading

Robert Elsie, Dictionary of Albanian Literature (1986), is comprehensive and balanced. Stuart E. Mann, Albanian Literature: An Outline of Prose, Poetry, and Drama (1955), is a panoramic historical view of the subject matter, although it suffers from some shortcomings. Namik Ressuli, Albanian Literature, trans. from Italian, ed. by Eduard Liço (1987), is a work by a perceptive critic that is especially useful for its detailed discussion of Naim Frashëri, Gjergj Fishta, Faik Konitza, and Fan S. Noli. Arshi Pipa, Albanian Literature: Social Perspectives (1978), has a wealth of data, above all on the place of the peasant in Albanian literature. Other useful works include Robert Elsie, History of Albanian Literature, 2 vol. (1995), and Albanian Literature: A Short History (2005); and Arshi Pipa, Contemporary Albanian Literature (1991). Bardhyl Pogoni (trans.), Contemporary Albanian Poems (1981), is an anthology of selected poems by five poets, printed in Albanian and English on facing pages, along with introductory comments on each.Peter R. Prifti

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