Alaskan mountains

▪ mountains, United States

Introduction

      three principal mountain groups—the Brooks Range, Alaska Range, and Aleutian Range—found in Alaska.

 The mountain ranges of Alaska give their state a rugged and beautiful terrain across its entire expanse. They include the highest peak in North America and are characterized by glaciers, earthquakes, and continuing volcanic activity. Structurally, the ranges are northwestward continuations of the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific mountain system of North America. Still little explored for vast stretches, Alaska's mountains contain, or lie close to, largely untapped mineral resources.

      The most northerly of the three major Alaskan mountain groups are the Brooks Range and the Arctic foothills, which extend the Rocky Mountains in an east-west arc from the Canadian border across northern Alaska. Central Alaska is characterized by highlands and basins drained by the great Yukon and Kuskokwim river systems. This area has been likened by some to a moister and colder version of the arid Great Basin region of the western United States.

      Alaska's southern coast and adjoining southeastern panhandle are dominated by an arc of mountain ranges that demark the Gulf of Alaska and make the state's Pacific coast one of the most spectacular on Earth. This Pacific mountain province is subdivided into several groups. The interior Alaska Range merges southwestward into the Aleutian Range and the Aleutian Islands. Separated from the Alaska Range by the Talkeetna and Wrangell mountains, the main mountains of the southern coast lie in the Kenai and Chugach Mountains. These heavily glaciated ranges border the Gulf of Alaska, the Chugach Mountains adjoining, to the south and east, the St. Elias Mountains (Saint Elias Mountains) at the Canadian border. The St. Elias Mountains, in turn, merge to the southeast into the mountains of the coastal Boundary Ranges, which, with the mountainous islands of the Alexander Archipelago, constitute the Alaskan panhandle.

Physical features

Physiography of the northern ranges

      The Arctic northward-sloping foothills, just north of the Brooks Range and along Alaska's Arctic Ocean coast, consist of low east–west-trending ridges and rolling plateaus with irregular isolated hills. They rise from 600 feet (180 metres) in the north to 3,600 feet in the south. Except for the east-flowing upper portion of the Colville River, most drainage is northward. This tundra-covered area, called the North Slope, is underlain by permafrost, which is permanently frozen sediment and rock; only a shallow surface zone thaws during the short summer, producing a vast number of small ephemeral lakes and ponds. This region is geologically complex, as is the higher Brooks Range to the south, but the layered bedrock is of less-resistant lithologies, some of which are rich in hydrocarbons. The youngest rocks in the Arctic foothills consist of Paleozoic and Cretaceous sediments (the Paleozoic Era lasted from 540 to 245 million years ago, and the Cretaceous Period lasted from 144 to 66.4 million years ago) that are folded, faulted, and overthrust toward the north. Sediments of Devonian (408 to 360 million years ago) to Cretaceous age form the southern section of the foothills. These, too, are tightly folded and overthrust northward.

      The Brooks Range, situated just south of the Arctic foothills, is the highest mountain range within the Arctic Circle. It is named for the American geologist Alfred Hulse Brooks, who first delineated the range's geologic character. It includes groups of subranges extending some 600 miles (1,000 kilometres) from the Canadian border westward to the Chukchi Sea. Average elevations range from 3,000 to 4,000 feet in the west to 5,000 to 6,000 feet in the east, with a high point of 9,060 feet in Mount Isto. Except for some higher ridges, the entire area has been glaciated and has exceedingly rugged topography. Several small glaciers are still present in the east, fewer in the west.

      The Brooks Range forms the drainage divide between waters flowing northward across the North Slope into the Arctic Ocean, those flowing westward into Kotzebue Sound, and those flowing southward into the Yukon River drainage system, which empties into the Bering Sea. Several major rivers have eroded headward into the range to form low passes, the best-known being Anaktuvuk Pass, at an elevation of 2,200 feet in the central part of the range. Atigun Pass, at the head of the Dietrich River, connects the oil-producing areas of the North Slope with interior Alaska and the south.

      The backbone of the range is composed of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks dating from the early Paleozoic. Younger sedimentary rocks, of Permian age (245 to 286 million years old) and from the Mesozoic Era (245 to 66.4 million years ago), flank the range. The mountains were uplifted by major compressional foldings (orogenies) in the Earth's crust that began late in the Jurassic Period (208 to 144 million years ago). The uplifting persisted in periodic increments throughout the Cretaceous and into the Tertiary Period (66.4 to 1.6 million years ago). The orogeny was completed by strong deformation and uplift in the late Tertiary. Folding, faulting, and major overthrusting toward the north during these orogenies were accompanied by erosion by rivers and glaciers. Most of the area now is characterized by permafrost. Small glaciers are commonplace in the range today.

Physiography of the central ranges

 The mountains of central Alaska are lower than the ranges to the north and south. They are drained almost entirely by two river systems, the Yukon (Yukon River) and the Kuskokwim. The intricately dissected uplands are divided into three areas: the eastern highlands, the western highlands, and the Seward Peninsula. The great sweep of ranges extends south of the Yukon from the Canadian border to the Bering Sea; north of the river the ranges are discontinuous.

      The eastern highlands consist of several separate mountain chains (e.g., the White Mountains), with average elevations of 4,000 to 5,000 feet and a few ridges rising 1,000 to 2,000 feet above these uplands. Many peaks exceed 6,000 feet in this sector. No glaciers are present in the region, and permafrost is discontinuous, occurring only at the higher elevations. Underlying rocks are highly deformed metamorphic and metasedimentary, with some volcanic material dating from Precambrian time (3.8 billion to 540 million years ago) through the Paleozoic Era. The higher parts are commonly composed of small segments of resistant granite that formed as magma intruded into preexisting rocks.

      The western highlands are subdivided into several smaller groups, notably the Kuskokwim Mountains. These ranges are somewhat lower and more rolling than the eastern highlands, with ridges trending southwest-northeast. Numerous isolated, nearly circular groups of mountains rise above these ridges. The bedrock includes tightly folded Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments and volcanics and Tertiary intrusions. No glaciers are now present, but the Ahklun Mountains at the sector's southwestern extremity are the largest formerly glaciated area in central Alaska; the Wood River–Tikchik region along the east side of this range has beautiful parallel glacial lakes and is considered one of the most scenic areas in the state.

      To the west and north is the upland area of the Seward Peninsula, the western tip of which is some 50 miles from Russia, across the Bering Strait. Much of the peninsula consists of broad, convex hills and ridges with an average elevation of about 2,000 feet surmounted by more rugged mountain groups. A few peaks rise above 3,000 feet; the highest, at 4,714 feet, is Mount Osborn in the Kigluaik Mountains in the southwestern part of the peninsula. Most of this area is characterized by permafrost. The exposed bedrock is early Paleozoic metamorphics, Cretaceous sediments, and intrusions of Mesozoic igneous rock.

Physiography of the southern ranges

      The Alaska and Aleutian ranges—together with the Talkeetna, Chugach, and Wrangell mountains, the interior part of the St. Elias Mountains, and the Boundary Ranges of southeastern Alaska and flanking interior sectors of northwestern British Columbia—constitute the most massive and spectacular mountain system in North America. Much of this system is geologically analogous in some respects to the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range of the western United States, and physiographically it may be considered the northwestern continuation of these.

      The Alaska and Aleutian ranges (Aleutian Range) extend in a great belt from the Canadian border, at first northwestward and then south- and westward to the Aleutian Islands. The oceanic Aleutians comprise a chain of mountainous volcanic peaks, the crest of a huge submarine ridge 1,500 miles long and 20 to 60 miles wide that rises 11,000 feet above the seafloor. Separating the Bering Sea from the Pacific Ocean, the archipelago stretches in a 1,100-mile-long arc from the Alaska Peninsula to Attu Island at the western end of the chain. With the Aleutian Range on the southeast side of the peninsula, they form a long, narrow belt of storm-whipped, often fog-shrouded peaks for 1,600 miles from Attu to Mount Spurr just west of the city of Anchorage. More than 80 volcanoes (volcano) have been mapped in this chain, half of which have been active in the last 300 years. Marine sedimentary rocks and granitic intrusions from the Mesozoic and Cenozoic (66.4 million years ago to the present) eras, as well as Cenozoic volcanic rocks, form this range. Pavlof and Shishaldin volcanoes rival Japan's Mount Fuji in the beauty of their symmetrical cones. There are enormous calderas—collapsed craters marking past volcanic eruptions. In 1912 one of the most spectacular of recent historic eruptions occurred when a volcano in the Aleutian Range erupted, forming the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, in what is now Katmai National Park and Preserve. Mount Spurr erupted in 1954 and remains active, as do Mounts Redoubt (1968) and Augustine (1976).

 The Alaska Range merges on its western end with the Aleutian Range between Iliamna Lake and Mount Spurr and extends in a great arc some 600 miles to the Canadian border at the southeastern end. This great mountain wall is about 120 miles wide near Mount Spurr and about 60 miles wide in the vicinity of Mount McKinley (McKinley, Mount), gradually narrowing to about 30 miles near the Canadian border. The range is extremely rugged and glaciated. The crest of most of the range averages between 7,000 and 9,000 feet in elevation, with a number of peaks exceeding 10,000 feet. The heavily glaciated massif of Mount McKinley (known to Native Americans as Denali, meaning “The High One”), at 20,320 feet (6,194 metres), is the highest point in North America; a spectacular companion peak is Mount Foraker (17,400 feet). Four great individual mountain masses dominate the Alaska group, divided by a number of low passes and river valleys, several of which provide routes of travel across the mountains. Great valley glaciers radiate from these mountain masses, except in the relatively low eastern sectors, where the few glaciers are small. The Alaska Range is the drainage divide for rivers flowing north into the Yukon system and those flowing south into the Gulf of Alaska.

      Most of the Alaska Range is underlain by large granitic intrusions (batholiths) into Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks that have been metamorphosed and deformed. The youngest sedimentary sequences are of Cenozoic age, are only moderately deformed, and can contain large deposits of coal. Long valleys and low passes follow the course of geologic faults, some extending almost parallel to the entire length of the range. The faults are thought to have formed near the close of the Mesozoic Era.

      Between the Alaska Range and the coastal ranges lie the Talkeetna Mountains and, to the east of them, the Wrangell Mountains. The Talkeetnas occupy a rugged oval area about 100 miles from north to south and 70 miles from east to west. They consist of a compact group of radial ridges averaging from 6,000 to 8,800 feet in elevation. There are only a few low passes. The higher ridges are sharp-crested, but on the western flank, as elevation decreases, the ridge tops have been rounded and subdued by overriding glaciers during the Pleistocene Epoch (1,600,000 to 10,000 years ago). Small glaciers 5 to 15 miles long are still present at the heads of many valleys in the Talkeetnas. The bedrock consists of a granite batholith intruded during the Mesozoic. Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments and volcanics are exposed on the flanks of the highlands. Some Tertiary volcanic flows are present in the southeastern part.

 The Wrangell Mountains, covering an area 100 by 70 miles, lie near the Pacific between the Alaska Range to the north and the Chugach Mountains to the south. The high, glaciated massifs rise more than 10,000 feet above the Copper River basin. Extensive local ice caps cover most of the highest mountains and feed large valley glaciers. This oval-shaped range consists of composite volcanic mountains that rest on metamorphosed Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary and igneous rocks. Some granitic masses intrude the Mesozoic rocks. Several peaks are at elevations higher than 12,000 feet; the highest is Mount Bona, at 16,421 feet, while Mount Wrangell (14,163 feet) is still steaming. The Wrangells are some of the most visually striking of the Alaskan mountains because of their rugged topography and perennial snow cover.

      Encircling the Gulf of Alaska, from Kodiak Island in the west to Baranof Island in the southeast, is another arcuate (bow-shaped) mountainous belt, 800 miles long and 20 to 110 miles wide. Mountainous Kodiak Island and the Kenai and Chugach Mountains form a rugged barrier along the northeast margin of the Pacific Ocean. The mountains of the Kodiak Island group, at average elevations of 2,000 to 4,000 feet, trend southwest-northeast. Pleistocene glaciation over most of the island produced a highly irregular coastline.

 The average elevation of the Kenai Mountains is 3,000 to 5,000 feet, whereas the Chugach group to the north and east average 7,000 to 8,000 feet. The highest peaks are in the sharp bend of the arc, where Mount Marcus Baker rises to 13,176 feet. The mountains are extremely rugged and heavily glaciated, resulting in the Sargent and Harding ice fields in the Kenai Mountains (on the Kenai Peninsula) and the Bagley Ice Field in the eastern Chugach Mountains. Numerous long and spectacular glaciers descend from the crests of these mountains. The St. Elias Mountains (Saint Elias Mountains) and the Kenai-Chugach mountain system have the most extensive system of highland and valley glaciers in North America, consisting of the Chugach and St. Elias ice fields.

      The arcuate physiographic form of the Kodiak-Kenai-Chugach belt is closely paralleled by the structural trends of the underlying rocks. The Mesozoic lithologies, primarily marine sediments and volcanics, have been intensely metamorphosed, folded, and faulted and have been intruded by small to moderate-size igneous bodies. Along the coastal areas on Kodiak Island in the Gulf of Alaska, softer Tertiary marine sediments are well exposed.

      The St. Elias Mountains straddle the border between Alaska and Canada. The Alaskan part of the range is topographically continuous with, and geologically similar to, the Chugach Mountains and joins the southeastern panhandle to the rest of the state. The St. Elias chain, composed of many glacier-fed ranges, is one of the highest coastal mountain groups in the world. It is about 200 miles long and has a maximum width of about 100 miles. The chain merges with the Chugach group near the Alaska-Yukon border and with the Wrangells and parts of the Alaska Range to the northwest.

      The massive, blocklike St. Elias Mountains rise from a myriad of narrow ridges and spectacular peaks at 8,000–10,000 feet (2,400–3,000 metres) in elevation to numerous ice-armoured summits over 14,000 feet high. Mounts Logan (Logan, Mount) (19,524 feet) and St. Elias (Saint Elias, Mount) (18,008 feet) are the two highest peaks. The spectacular St. Elias chain contains the largest ice field in North America, with about half of its glacial cover of some 10,000 square miles in Canada and the rest in Alaska. The average elevation of the ice fields blanketing the lower regions is 3,000 to 7,000 feet. Because of difficulty of access and extensive ice cover, the geology is still little known. The highest mountains are fault-block in character and consist of uplifted metamorphic granite cores with huge inclusions of migmatite, gneiss, and schist. On the coast and inland flanks, the geology grades into sedimentary and admixed volcanic rocks of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age.

      At the southern end of the St. Elias Mountains, on a peninsula south of the Alsek River where it enters Dry Bay, rises the unique and spectacular fault-block mountain system of the Fairweather Range. Its ice-clad summit, only nine miles from the sea, is Mount Fairweather (Fairweather, Mount) (15,300 feet). At the southern end of this range is the Brady Icefield, and east of the range is world-renowned Glacier Bay, with its largely receding tidal glaciers. The Chilkat Range, east of Glacier Bay, is flanked by Lynn Canal, the northern extension of Chatham Strait. Together they represent one of the longest and deepest fjords in North America.

      Along the north-south axis of this fjord is the trace of a great, inactive fault system known as the Lynn Canal–Chatham Strait trough. This fault zone bounds the St. Elias Mountains on the northwest and west and continues to the north and west along the north side of the Alaska Range; it continues southeastward through the Alexander Archipelago and thence offshore along the coast of southeastern Alaska and western British Columbia. West of the St. Elias Mountains and Fairweather Range is the still-active Fairweather Fault, a northward extension of California's coastal San Andreas Fault. The Fairweather Fault parallels the southeastern Alaska coast from Cape Spencer north and northwestward to the Copper River and Cook Inlet of south-coastal Alaska. This fault system has been the locus of many major earthquakes in Alaska since the 1850s, including the large quake of March 1964.

      The mountains of southeastern Alaska tie in the Canadian Coast Mountains to the south and east with the St. Elias range to the north and west. As such, they are a northward continuation of the Pacific mountain system that extends southward into the western United States. The heavily glaciated Boundary Ranges along the Alaska-Canada border extend between the Skagway River at the northern end of Alaska's Inside Passage southward to the Portland Canal southeast of Ketchikan. They rise to 5,000 to 7,000 feet above sea level, with the higher peaks reaching 10,000 feet. These mountains are underlain by the massive granitic rocks of the Coast Range Batholith, successively intruded in various stages during the orogeny of the late Mesozoic to mid-Cenozoic (about 100 to 50 million years ago). To the northeast and southeast of Juneau, respectively, are the Juneau and Stikine ice fields that feed numerous valley glaciers, some of which extend to the sea.

      A unique and distinguishing characteristic of the Boundary Ranges are the inclusion of accretionary terranes—massive zones of exotic rock types rafted into positions that now are some distance inland and are found even on the interior Canadian flanks of the Juneau and Stikine ice fields. These large and distinctive rock types represent pre-Cenozoic blocks shifted northward along the trace of ancient island arcs along the coast, actuated by tectonic stresses along plate boundaries.

      Lying to the west of the Boundary Ranges on the mainland is the rugged and scenic island complex of the Alexander Archipelago. The mountains of the archipelago range in elevation from 2,000–3,500 feet in the southern Prince of Wales Mountains to more than 4,000–7,500 feet in the Chilkat Range and the mountains of Admiralty, Baranof, and Chicagof islands. These islands have small glaciers and rugged coastlines indented by fjords. The archipelago is composed of southeast–northwest-trending belts of Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary, metasedimentary, and volcanic rocks. Metamorphic facies rocks are exposed in the eastern sectors. These have been intruded by igneous stocks and cut by many high-angled normal and reversed faults.

Climate

      A host of factors—some peculiar to mountains in general and some specific to Alaska's high latitude—make it difficult to classify Alaska's mountains into definite climatic types. On a regional scale the Alaskan mountains span all the climatic zones found in the state. The northern slopes of the Brooks Range fall within the Arctic zone, while its southern slopes and the Alaska, Talkeetna, and Wrangell ranges all fall within the continental zone. Both zones are characterized by long cold winters, short cool summers, moderate summer rainfall, and light snowfall during the winter. The continental zone is generally more arid, with clearer skies and more extreme temperatures.

      The Chugach Mountains, the western Aleutian Range, and the Alaska Peninsula fall within the transitional zone. The mountains of the Aleutian Islands and the remaining southern mountains, in particular those of the panhandle, lie within the maritime zone, the climate being influenced by the warm waters of the Kuroshio (Japan Current). These two zones have relatively small temperature variations and much cloudiness and precipitation, although these conditions are all less pronounced in the transitional zone. Mean January temperatures range from -20° F (-29° C) in the Brooks Range to between 14° and 32° F (-10° and 0° C) in the Boundary Ranges of the panhandle. Winter temperatures at or below -50° F (-46° C) are not unusual, however, in the mountains of the interior and at higher elevations in the Boundary Ranges. Mean July temperatures range from about 60° F (16° C) on the lower slopes of the Brooks Range (and lower still at higher elevations) to about 68° F (20° C) in the lower Talkeetnas. With less than 20 inches (500 millimetres) of annual precipitation, the Brooks Range is the driest of the Alaskan ranges, while the coastal mountains from the Copper River delta area southward through the Alexander Archipelago are the wettest, with precipitation sometimes reaching 200 to 300 inches annually.

Plant and animal life

      Vegetation at the higher elevations of the mountain ranges, when they are not barren or covered by ice, is usually a ridge type of tundra, or treeless plain. Above the timberline (the upper limit of tree growth), vegetation consists of lichens, grasses, sedges, and heather. Dwarf species of willow and alder also are found, while extensive grasslands occur in the Aleutians, on the Alaska Peninsula, and on the southern slopes of the Alaska Range. In the interior forests the timberline in many places is less than 600 feet above sea level, although it is generally between 1,500 and 2,000 feet. The interior forests, consisting of white spruce and birch or aspen, with mixtures of balsam poplar, occur mostly on the lower slopes of the larger river valleys north of the Alaska Range. In the coastal forests the timberline ranges in elevation from about 2,000–3,000 feet in southeastern Alaska to approximately 1,000 feet in the more northerly and westerly sections.

      The Tongass National Forest encompasses southeastern Alaska, and the Chugach National Forest covers the lower parts of the Chugach, Kenai, and Kodiak mountain areas. Vegetation in the lower elevations is a hemlock-spruce coastal forest. Western hemlock and Sitka spruce extend to about 1,500 feet above sea level, and subalpine species to at least 2,500 feet. The Tongass National Forest is composed largely of western hemlock, with a much smaller proportion of Sitka spruce and a sprinkling of western red cedar, Alaska cedar, and alpine fir. On the continental flank of these ranges, white spruce and lodgepole pine dominate. The Chugach National Forest, in the Prince William Sound section, is predominantly a hemlock forest with some Sitka and white spruce and occasional cottonwood and paper birch.

 Several large mammals are native to the Alaskan mountains. Brown and grizzly bears and wolves inhabit the Boundary and St. Elias ranges, the Alaska Range, and the interior. Black bears, absent from the Alaska Peninsula, are found in most of the state. Dall (Dall sheep) bighorn sheep live high in the mountains from the Kenai Peninsula to the Brooks Range and southeastward in the interior St. Elias and Boundary ranges. Mountain goats are in the Chugach, Kenai, Talkeetna, St. Elias, and Boundary ranges. Moose, though living mostly in the lower elevations, range into high country from the Alaska Peninsula to the Brooks Range. Barren-ground caribou and foxes range over high plateaus and mountain slopes from the Alaska Peninsula to the Arctic. Sitka deer are abundant in southeastern Alaska and in parts of the Prince William Sound region. A number of smaller fur-bearing animals—including lynx, martens, and weasels—are native to all the mountains, as are porcupines.

The people and economy

      As a marginal environment in a mostly harsh climatic region, the Alaskan mountains have few areas suitable for settlement. Where they occur, settlements are limited to lower elevations or intermontane valleys. Only the coast mountains of southern Alaska and the panhandle support sizable populations. Anchorage is the most populous urban area. Throughout the coastal sectors there also are widely scattered shoreline villages backed by mountains that descend abruptly to the coast. Commercial fishing, forestry, some mining, and tourism are the major economic activities in settled coastal areas. The Trans-Alaska (Trans-Alaska Pipeline) oil pipeline, from Prudhoe Bay on the North Slope, crosses the Brooks, Alaska, and Chugach ranges, terminating at the ice-free port of Valdez, east of Anchorage.

      Mountain landscapes in the interior have soils underlain by permafrost and only short frost-free periods in summer, both of which inhibit agriculture. Moreover, solifluction—the downslope flow of waterlogged soil over subsurface permafrost—prohibits building construction and road development in many areas. Inhabited mostly by Alaskan Indians and Eskimos, interior settlements are isolated and depend largely on subsistence-level activities such as hunting, fishing, and fur trapping, with some farming. Arts and crafts are economically important in some areas. The major commercial activities in the mountain interior are metal (zinc, platinum, gold, and silver) and coal mining and forestry. There are some gold and silver mining operations in the mountains of the panhandle.

Study and exploration

      Alaska has been fully mapped topographically from aerial photographs; the underlying geology of large areas, however, remains incompletely mapped. The U.S. Geological Survey, as part of the general reconnaissance mapping program from the late 19th century to the 1960s, did most of the geologic work, with some fieldwork also by the U.S. Bureau of Mines and the Alaska Department of Geological and Geophysical Surveys. Since 1950, areas of potential mineral and transportation value have been mapped on a more detailed basis by these state and federal agencies. Various university research parties also have contributed to the data, while some local site assessments and geologic mapping have been done by private mining and petroleum companies; this latter work rarely is made public.

      Detailed glaciological studies in the Alaskan mountains began with the Harriman Alaska Expedition (1899), funded by the railroad magnate Edward Henry Harriman (Harriman, Edward Henry). This was followed by expeditions of the National Geographic Society in the early and mid-20th century and field studies by the American Geographical Society, the Office of Naval Research, the Arctic Institute of North America, and the U.S. Geological Survey. The longest continuous glaciological study in the Alaskan mountains and ice fields has been conducted since 1946 by the Juneau Icefield Research Program in the Coast Mountains. Numerous other studies of varying duration have been carried out at a great many sites.

R.A.M. Schmidt Maynard M. Miller

Additional Reading

Information on the geology and physiography of the Alaskan mountains is found in Howel Williams (ed.), Landscapes of Alaska: Their Geologic Evolution (1958), a well-written description of all parts of the peninsula; Clyde Wahrhaftig, Physiographic Divisions of Alaska (1966), a detailed summary survey with good maps and illustrations; and George Plafker and Henry C. Berg, The Geology of Alaska (1994), a comprehensive work. Maynard M. Miller, “Alaska's Mighty Rivers of Ice,” National Geographic Magazine, 131(2):194–217 (February 1967), surveys the glacial character of Alaska's mountainous coast. Plant and animal life is outlined in Leslie A. Viereck and Elbert L. Little, Jr., Alaska Trees and Shrubs (1972, reprinted 1986), a good field guide for identification; Jacob Peter Anderson, Anderson's Flora of Alaska and Adjacent Parts of Canada, new ed. edited by Stanley L. Welsh (1974); and Clarence J. Rhode and Will Barker, Alaska's Fish and Wildlife (1953), a brief nontechnical summary. Robert Marshall, Alaska Wilderness: Exploring the Central Brooks Range, 2nd ed. (1970), describes the physiography, flora, and fauna of this region. National Geographic Society (U.S.), Special Publications Division, Alaska's Magnificent Parklands (1984), provides general descriptions of the state's main parks.Maynard M. Miller

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