African dance

Introduction

 performing art deeply woven into the social fabric of Africa and generally involving aspects of music and theatre as well as rhythmic bodily movement. See also African music and mask.

The cultural position of dance

      In African societies, dance serves a complex diversity of social purposes. Within an indigenous dance tradition, each performance usually has a principal as well as a number of subsidiary purposes, which may express or reflect the communal values and social relationships of the people. In order to distinguish between the variety of dance styles, therefore, it is necessary to establish the purpose for which each dance is performed.

 Often there is no clear distinction between ritual celebration and social recreation in dance performances; one purpose can merge into the other, as in the appearance of the great Efe mask at the height of the Gelede ritual festival in the Ketu- Yoruba villages of Nigeria and Benin. At midnight the mask dramatically appears to the expectant community, its wearer uttering potent incantations to placate witches. The dancer then moves into a powerful stamping dance in honour of the great Earth Mother and the women elders of the community. The dance continues as the performer pauses to sing the praises of people of rank, carefully observing their order of seniority. In this way a ritual act becomes a social statement, which then flows into recreation as the formal dancing by the Gelede team gives way to free participation by spectators until sunrise. The great Efe holds a central position, entertaining his audience with tales that make comic and satiric reference to irregular behaviour within the community over the past year.

      The more significant the concept expressed in a dance, the greater the appreciation of the audience and the more insistent their demands for a skillful performance and for movements that fit its purpose. Dance is appreciated as a social occasion but is simultaneously enjoyed as an activity in its own right, entertaining and giving pleasure as an expression of communal life.

The religious context

 Thought systems traditional to African cultures are rooted in a world view in which there is continuous interaction between spiritual forces and the community. Spiritual beings may inhabit natural elements or animals and may also take possession of human mediums. This possession of persons is usually temporary and confined to ritual, as when the priest of the Yoruba god Shango dances into a state of deep trance at the annual festival, expressing the wrath of the god of thunder with the lightning speed of his arm gestures and the powerful roll of his shoulders. In Zimbabwe the Mhondora spirit mediums, who relate the Shona people to the guardian spirits of the dead, enter a trance through the music of the mbira lamellaphone, to which they sing while performing simple, repetitive foot patterns. Thus, the dances of priests and mediums confirm their ritual leadership.

 Dance is used as therapy (therapeutics) by ritual societies in many cultures. Hausa women, for example, find healing through dance and spirit possession in the Bori cult. Among the Jukun of Nigeria, a similar organization is called the Ajun, whose elders deal with hysterical disorders in women by exorcising evil spirits in initiation ceremonies. During a three-month period in a house shrine, the sufferer is taught songs and dances that have a therapeutic function culminating in a ceremony in which the initiate publicly joins the members of the society to perform the Ajun-Kpa dance. The female spirit mediums of the Kalabari in the Niger delta, using dance and song as an essential part of their therapy, are also credited with powers of healing.

      Many African religions are based on a bond of continuity between the living and their dead ancestors, who, in some cultures, return as masquerade performers to guide and judge the living. The complex web of human relationships is continuously renewed and restated at ritual festivals through the arts.

Masquerade dancers

 Masquerade dancers are a feature of religious societies in many areas. Four main types of masquerader are identified by the roles they play: those who embody deities or nature spirits and to whom sacrifice is made to assure the fertility of land and people, those who embody the ancestral spirits, those who placate the spirits through their dance, and those who perform principally as entertainers.

      Animal masks are a common feature of masking societies throughout Africa. In Mali the Tyiwara spirit masqueraders of the Bambara people carry formalized carvings of antelopes and other wild animals, dancing in imitation of their movements to promote the fertility of land and community. The Isinyaso masked dancers of the Yao and Maku peoples of Tanzania carry elaborate bamboo structures covered with cloth and raffia, which sway rhythmically while their Nteepana mask elongates to great heights as the embodiment of a powerful animal spirit.

 The type of mask influences the style of the masquerade dance. The Ikpelweme ancestral masqueraders of the Afemai people of Bendel State, Nigeria, wear richly coloured, close-fitting costumes with face masks and elaborate headpieces of embroidered cloth, which allow for a dance that accelerates into a climax of rapid, abrupt movement. The Nago and Akakayi ancestral masqueraders of the Gwari wear close-fitting head and body coverings, which permit rapid, staccato movements while dancing at the “second burial” (i.e., the post-burial celebrations) of a leader of the community. The Egungun ancestral masqueraders of Yorubaland appear in a wide variety of loosely flowing cloth or palm-leaf costumes, often with carved headpieces. The heavier the mask, the less freedom for dance. For example, Epa masqueraders of the Ekiti-Yoruba carry carved helmet masks with elaborate superstructures whose weight allows only the type of movement fitting the stately processional dances that confirm the masqueraders' role of ritual leadership. Masked stilt dancers, such as those of the Makonde of Tanzania, are largely restricted to rhythmic strides and gestures; in contrast, the simple cloth costumes of ancestral Egungun Elewe of the Igbomina-Yoruba allow for a dance of acrobatic skill, and the light raffia Igo masks of the neighbouring Edo people enable them to lift their costumes above their heads in a dance of whirling turns.

      Secular masqueraders who perform as entertainers have emerged from the ritual societies. The Egungun entertainers of the Oyo-Yoruba, for example, perform at Egungun ancestral festivals, but they may be invited to perform for a fee as entertainers, often traveling to neighbouring towns to earn money (although they are obliged to offer sacrifices to their ancestors before performing). The company members usually start with popular acrobatic dances and then display their magic powers by changing into a series of animal and masked figures. They use an inventive range of mime and dance to praise gods and heroes, to satirize politicians and wrongdoers, and to ridicule strangers, such as visiting Hausa traders or Europeans, with wit and humour. Accompanied by singers and led by a drum ensemble, they present a form of communal or folk theatre.

      Masqueraders may play an individual role, as with the circumciser (circumcision) during the initiation rites of the young Nyanga men in eastern Congo (Kinshasa). Initially he dances as a masquerade to send the boys out of the village to their ritual seclusion, where he taunts the initiates before and after the rites of circumcision. As an authority figure, he inspires awe in women and children. In some cultures masquerade performance is not allowed to be seen by women, and nocturnal performances are often used to control women and even threaten them into accepting their social role. This is aided by the fact that in many forms of masquerade the body of the carrier is entirely covered in order to hide his identity, and his voice may be distorted by a kazoo (or voice disguiser).

The social (social status) context

      In all African cultures, dance, music, and song help define the role of the individual and the group within the community. In hierarchical societies a ruler is expected to state his authority in formal dances, and failure to meet the required standard may seriously damage his prestige.

      At the crowning of an oba (king) in Yorubaland, for example, the ruler leads a procession through the town as he dances with upright carriage and dignified step, his gestures dictated by the nature of his kingly role and the insignia he carries. His wives follow, interpreting the rhythms in a style suitable to their rank, inclining forward from the waist with their attention respectfully directed toward the earth. When the oba is seated in state, his war chiefs greet him, each with his appropriate dance rhythm. The hunters then dance to their rapid and complex beat. Palace chiefs and women market chiefs have their own distinctive music, song, and dance to praise the ruler, and girls, young men, and children honour him with dances appropriate to their status.

 Dance is also important as an educational (education) tool. Repetitive dances teach children (childhood) physical control and stress accepted standards of conduct. Children may form their own dance and masquerade groups, join adults at the end of a dance line, or simply have a space allocated to them in a performing area at the time of a festival. In some places, particularly in West Africa, boys have their own masked dances in training for membership in adult societies. Throughout Africa children enjoy dance games, as when Makindu boys of Kenya sing as they play leapfrog to a dance rhythm.

 In societies that stress horizontal stratification into age sets, the qualities proper to a particular age are expressed in dances, as in those that keep young men physically fit and teach them the discipline necessary in warfare. The dances of young Zulu and Ndebele men in Southern Africa recall the victories of past warriors. Among the Owo-Yoruba the stately Totorigi dance is for senior men and women, while adolescent boys perform the lively Ajabure with ceremonial swords. The transition from one age grade to the next may be marked by rites (rite of passage) and festivities. In initiation rites for adolescents, dances may stress sexual fertility as well as customary behaviour between the sexes. In the Otufo initiation rites for girls among the Ga of Ghana, dance is part of their preparation for womanhood and enables them to display their talents to suitors. Young kaka men of Cameroon perform their Midimu dance after the circumcision rites as a formal precondition of admission into the society of adults.

      In some areas dances are designed to be performed during funeral (death rite) rites, after burial ceremonies, and at anniversaries. Dances may be created for a specific purpose, as in the Igogo dance of the Owo-Yoruba, when young men use stamping movements to pack the earth of the grave into place. In Fulani communities in Cameroon, the corpse is placed in a sitting position in a prominent place, and solo and communal dances are performed in the deceased's honour. In some areas a circle dance surrounds the men performing the required ritual autopsy.

      Thus, dance plays a cathartic role during the key transition from one social state to another: a child is welcomed into the community at his naming ceremony; an adolescent is initiated into the responsibilities of adult life; a woman moves from her paternal home to join her husband's family; an elder receives recognition for service in the form of a title; a member leaves the community to join the world of the spirits. The individual is not left alone to bear the emotions that accompany critical change, as members of the community carry him and his family through the crisis with appropriate ceremonies containing the emotions of the moment in music, song, and dance.

Division between the sexes

      Within traditions of long standing in many cultures, it is unusual for men and women to dance in direct relation to each other, and they seldom perform the same style of dance—though combination of the sexes is more common in areas where the original dance has been disrupted by non-African forms. Idealized male and female qualities are normally expressed in the movement patterns of their separate dances: for example, Tiv men dance with an attack of rapid, forceful movements to express masculinity, whereas the women dance with a sustained grace to reflect their femininity. If men and women join a common dance circle, their dance patterns are usually distinct, as with the Kambari of Nigeria: men and women dance to the same musical rhythm, but they hold different postures, with the women singing and using a simpler foot pattern than the men.

 Dance occasions for formalized flirtation between the sexes before marriage are common, as in the Sikya dance of the Akan of Ghana. The Bororo of western Cameroon celebrate the coming of the dry season with a dance for young men and women, and couples pair off at the climax of the performance. Among the Nupe of Nigeria ribald songs and joking insults between the sexes have replaced performances allowing for sexual license at harvest festivals. The dances of Ika men and girls (western Igbo, Nigeria) have become openly erotic since the early 1960s, when a master dancer brought the sexes together in a single dance team to entertain visitors to the palace of the oba of Agbor in Nigeria. Thus, erotic patterns of dance movement are encouraged in some societies, usually with bawdy humour, whereas the limits of flirtation are clearly defined in others for the sake of social decorum.

Work dances

      Men who work together often celebrate a successful project with beer drinking and vigorous dances expressing their occupational skills. In Nigeria, Nupe fishermen are renowned for their net throwing, which they formalize into dance patterns, and young Irigwe farmers on the Jos Plateau leap to encourage the growth of crops at festivals related to the agricultural cycle. Occupational guilds and professional organizations of experts, such as blacksmiths, hunters, or wood-carvers, have their own expressive dances.

 Hunters (hunting) may reenact their exploits or mime the movements of animals as a ritual means of controlling wild beasts and allaying their own fears. The Akan of Ghana perform the Abofor dance, a dance-mime staged after the killing of a dangerous animal. This is meant to placate the spirit of the beast and inform the community of the manner in which it was killed. Tutsi hunters in Congo (Kinshasa) commemorate a successful hunt in their lion dance.

Dance as recreation

      Dance is the most popular form of recreation in Africa. In towns, men and women of all ages meet informally in dance clubs to dance to the rhythms of popular musicians. In villages there may be opportunities in the evenings for informal dancing, but relations between the sexes there are more tightly controlled.

      Highlife was a style of urban recreational dance popular in West Africa in the 1950s. It originated in Ghana, where musicians adopted Western dance-band instruments at open-air nightclubs to celebrate the exuberant spirit of independence. In Nigeria, local instruments were used as the Yoruba created juju rhythms, while the Tiv danced the Swange. Francophone countries elaborated the Latin American rhythms of the cha-cha, while Southern Africans danced to the modern African beats of the kwela. Zairian dance bands excelled in the creation of their own popular dance music. These have given way to styles influenced by Caribbean reggae and Western pop music, but they retain a distinctly African character.

Dance style

      Although often similar in social purpose, dances are realized in radically different styles in the multitude of diverse cultures of Africa. Movement patterns vary greatly from one culture to another, depending upon the way in which environmental, historical, and social circumstances have been articulated in working, social, and recreational movements.

 People living on dry, spacious farmlands, for example, have different movement habits from those living in swamplands. For farmers of the savanna, the ground is solid and their space open to the far horizon. They place their feet firmly on the sunbaked earth as they follow their team leader on the circular path of their dance, performing simple foot patterns at a steady tempo.

      The Ijo people, who live in the mangrove swamps of the Niger delta, traditionally wrest an uneasy living by fishing creeks and rivers. As they dance, they lean forward from the hips, their torsos almost parallel with the earth as they use a precision of light, rapid foot beats, moving their weight from heel to toe to side of foot in a variety of rhythmic patterns, as though balancing on an unsteady canoe or picking their way through the swamp. Many other riverine peoples mime paddling in their dances.

      Manipulating their flowing gowns as an extension of gesture in stately, measured dances, the Kanuri of Maiduguri in northeastern Nigeria conserve energy with economy of movement—a common feature in the dance of desert peoples. By contrast, some forest dwellers dance freely. The southern Yoruba continuously alter their foot patterns and sequence of movements at the dictates of the leading drummer. Their movements suggest finding a way through forest undergrowth, which necessitates reactions ever alert to the unexpected.

      Working movements feed into styles of dance. The bend of the knees accompanying the swing of a farmer's machete may be elaborated in a dance pattern. Architecture, furniture, and dress are among features that also influence posture and gesture, producing a distinctive use of energy. The Kambari of Nigeria continuously bend forward to enter their low doors, and their dance posture reflects this habit. The Jukun sit on low stools or on the floor with legs crossed or extended; their flexible knees and strong leg tendons allow for the performance of continuous deep knee bends in their dance movements.

      These cultural influences in the development of dance style have been offset by such historical events as migrations, wars, and slave trading, which have displaced people as refugees over the centuries, changed their habitation patterns, and brought them in touch with new environments. The development of trade routes introduced influences from Arabic and other cultures. Conversion to Christian and Muslim faiths severely disrupted ritual and ceremonial life and thus often disturbed the traditional patterns sustaining music and dance. Colonialism also resulted in the dissipation of cultural homogeneity and the gathering of disparate dance patterns into new styles.

Dance formations

      There are four principal African dance formations: a dance team using a formalized floor pattern; a group using a free-flow floor pattern; a group using a formation from which solo dancers emerge to display their individual skills; and the performance of a solo dancer—usually a ruler, ritual specialist, herbalist, or comic entertainer—who may be supported by a group of musicians.

      The most common form of dance within the indigenous traditions of Africa is a team dance performed either in a closed circle, with the dancers facing the centre, or in a line following a circular path that is often centred on the musicians. The dancers usually move along the circle line in a counterclockwise direction. In egalitarian societies the circular team dances are a marked expression of the close-knit fraternity within an age grade, as with Tiv men, while Tiv women express their relationship within the extended family through their own circle dance.

      Dance teams using straight linear formations are common in cultures with a strong warrior tradition, where a strict spatial discipline is required, as in the Shangani war dances in Zimbabwe. They also are common with people prone to borrow from other cultures, as with the Igbo boys' dances in eastern Nigeria, in which the formation of a number of lines suggests Western patterns of drill. Some migratory cultures favour the line, as do Fulani girls, who form a tightly knit unit with their arms around one another's waists as they perform simple step rhythms from side to side, and the Masai (Maasai), with their high-jumping dance pattern.

      A linear or circular floor pattern is used in cultures employing a combination of team and soloist. The Olu Kanaanwa dance for unmarried Igbo girls is done in unison in a circular formation, from which each dancer breaks away to perform individually in the centre. Among Ijo women, the dance starts in a loosely knit semicircular line from which virtuoso performers move out toward the spectators. The Urhobo of Nigeria use a loose, linear formation, the soloists dancing toward and away from the musicians. As the tempo of the drumming mounts, individuals dance into an ecstatic trance in which they are caught and controlled by dance organizers. A more ordered line-and-soloist pattern is used by Asante women in the Kumasi district of Ghana in their Adua dance, which is notable for elaborating expressive hand movements into a language of gestures.

 The members of dance teams who perform on occasions of social importance are related within an age grade, an extended family, a working guild, a social club, or a ritual society whose elders provide sponsorship, respond to invitations, settle financial arrangements with external bodies, and discipline spectators and dancers at performances. A woman elder is usually the “mother” of the dance, attending to the comfort of the dancers and encouraging them by ululating during the performance. The elders select the team leader on the basis of skill, organizing ability, and creative flair. The leader selects the dancers, arranges and runs rehearsals, and is responsible to the elders for the appropriate dress of the performers. In some cultures the leader may compose songs requiring an elaboration of gesture or new movement patterns, which he or she will then choreograph. In cultures in which the dancers sing either before or during the dance, the leader initiates the singing.

      In performance the leader heads the dance line or performs alone in a clearly defined space. The leader responds to the musicians and takes artistic responsibility for the dance interpretation of the music on behalf of the team, which usually follows the leader's movements in unison. In formal team dancing, creative innovations are planned and practiced in rehearsals.

Dance posture

 There are three characteristic dance postures. An upright posture with a straight back is used as an expression of authority in the dance of chiefs and priests. In the second posture the dancer inclines forward from the hips, moving his attention and gestures toward the ground. In the third posture the dancer holds the torso nearly parallel to the ground, taking the body weight onto the balls of the feet. Many riverine people use this posture. The downward stress toward the earth does not necessarily imply that the dancer is heavy-footed. In some cultures the dancers use the full foot in stamping out the rhythms, while in others they may leap or perform light foot movements.

Rhythm

      African dances are earth-centred. Dancers repeatedly return to the earth as they give themselves to the rhythmic pulses of their dance, interpreting the percussive patterns of the music through their postures, gestures, and steps. They externalize rhythmic patterns in the surrounding space by moving through, rather than to, fixed positions in the space surrounding the body. Thus, the criteria for assessing skill are based on rhythmic rather than spatial precision. Rhythm is provided for the dancer by musicians playing percussive instruments, by singers, or by a combination of music and song. In some cultures the dancers themselves sing or play musical instruments as they perform. Normally the musicians lead the dancers, although there are cultures in which the dancer takes over the initiative and sets up a dialogue of rhythmic exchange.

      A dancer is assessed primarily on his ability to follow the percussive musical rhythm, “to play the drums with his feet” or with whatever part of the body articulates the rhythm. Each dance style is immediately identified by its characteristic rhythmic pattern. In some cultures the rhythmic patterns are expressed in foot patterns, in others in contractions of the torso, strong shoulder beats, rapid vibrations or twists of the buttocks, or acrobatic leaps.

 A wide variety of rhythmic patterns form the basis of dance in Africa. The most basic is the continuous repetition of a simple beat at a steady tempo for the duration of a dance. This may continue for days, as in the Akbia women's funeral dance in the southern Sudan and the dances of the Bambuti of Central Africa.

      Teams of savanna farmers on the Jos Plateau play instruments as they dance, using simple, repetitive rhythmic phrases. Angas men of West Africa blow 14 large buffalo horns as they perform the repetitive step pattern of the Rumada dance in a circle, following the line or moving in and out of the centre. Neighbouring Chip men perform a light run, playing flutes of four different pitches that combine to form a rhythmic melody. At the end of each phrase the dancers turn toward the centre of their circle to perform a climax of light hopping movements as they play. In many styles of circle dance the music is divided into a number of separate sections, each with its own distinct rhythm and related dance pattern, as in the Lmele le dag Chun dance of the Birom girls of the Jos Plateau.

      The Igbo dance to a complex of sophisticated rhythms. In the Ubi-Ogazu dance, a version of the popular Atilogwu performed by a boys' team, the adult leader dances while playing a small flute to lead the rhythm. He is supported by a single-membrane drum, a pot drum, two simple xylophones, and a bamboo gong. The dance has at least 10 variations, each with a distinct rhythm dictating its own movement pattern. As in most African dances, the rhythm gives the name to the dance steps: in the Ikpo Okme, the performers hop from one foot to the other; for Ebenebe, a stamping pattern leads into a cartwheel; Iza requires an upright carriage with high kicks; Nkpopi is a leaping dance; Etukwa requires the torso to be inclined to the earth as the feet drum a staccato beat; Nzaukwu Nabi is a stamping step with sudden pauses.

      In the Ubi-Ogazu (“Guinea Fowl”; named for the bird that inspired a hunter to create the dance), the performers hold bird-topped, carved staves for an initial dance in which they execute birdlike hops in a circle. They then drop the staves in favour of horse-tail switches held in both hands as they form two lines facing each other for the main performance. The performers wear brief skirts with girdles of brass bells and seedpod rattles around their ankles to accentuate their movements. The regular introduction of new themes calls for innovation in the dance rhythms. The girls' and women's teams use a more flowing quality of movement that elaborates the intertwining rhythms played by an ensemble or sung by a choir at varying tempos.

      While months of practice are required before an Igbo dance team is permitted by the elders to perform on a public occasion, a Yoruba dancer may develop new patterns within the dance style during performance. The Yoruba Apala dance allows individuals to move on a free-flow floor pattern. Each dancer competes with his fellows in the interpretation of the rhythm and in his swift response to change. The leading drummer leaves the ensemble to join an outstanding dancer in a rhythmic exchange in which he praises and urges him into yet greater feats of invention, the drum's tones speaking recognizable proverbs from the tonal Yoruba language. The dancer performs a variety of subtle foot patterns leading into turns, kicks, or small, neat jumps. He flourishes his horse-tail switch and swirls or holds his flowing robe as he continuously alters his tempo at the dictates of the drum.

      The Swange is a form of urban recreational dance among the Tiv in which men and women dance together. This dance uses the circle formation familiar in village dances and adapts traditional musical themes to highlife rhythms played on a combination of Tiv and Hausa instruments. The climax of the evening is provided by a solo dancer who improvises freely, using movements from many styles of Tiv dance in a rhythmic dialogue with the lead drummer.

Change and tradition

      Scholars studying the emergence of new styles of dance in Africa have distinguished three related forms: traditional, neo-traditional, and contemporary. The last two categories have become increasingly evident as the result of radical social changes since World War II.

      Changes in traditional dance styles within a village usually occur gradually, under the creative leadership of master dancers. But major social changes in the community, such as the introduction of formal primary education, radically alter the pattern of life—including children's attitudes toward their dances, which they no longer have time to learn in the inherited manner. Modern transport and communication bring together people of diverse cultures, resulting in cross-cultural influences on dance performance. The spread of transistor radios in villages has caused young people to turn to new styles of dance, with an accent on entertainment. When a master dancer dies, there is often no one to replace him, but the changing patterns of life stimulate creative individuals to build new expressive patterns.

      An example of change can be seen in the Sogoni Koun masquerade dancers of the Dogon in Mali, who carry a wide range of carved wooden masks, some surmounted by geometric shapes up to 12 feet (366 cm) high. The masks are so lightly constructed that they do not hamper the vigorous dances of the carriers as they bend to touch the earth, traditionally to honour the dead during funeral rites. According to one theory, the geographic isolation of the Dogon protected the masking societies from changes affecting other Malian cultures, until the introduction of a cash economy forced the young men who carried the masks to migrate to labour markets. They returned with urban tastes and habits, altering the social pattern on which the masking traditions were based. The traditions were further threatened by the spread of Islam.

      In the 1930s the establishment of the Malian Tourist Office created a new role for the dancers as entertainers for colonial officers. This later developed into regular paid performances for tourists visiting the villages. Dance leaders tailored performances to run for a limited time, using a performing area unrelated to the funeral rites and therefore necessitating a different pattern of movement and positioning of performers. The dances stressed spectacular movements but lost the social purpose that had infused them with dramatic vitality. The masks are now decorated with commercial paints and the dancers concerned with commercial reward. As members of the Malian National Folk Lore Troupe, they gain prestige as ambassadors for their country at international festivals. Radical changes continue as dancers travel to work in urban centres, where Western forms of entertainment on radio, film, and television have become part of life.

 A major catalyst of change is the staging of civic arts festivals organized by government ministries to promote the traditional arts as a means of enhancing national unity. Cultural officers visit villages and hold competitions to select the best dancers to compete against performers of other styles within their own culture. The winners are then taken to urban centres to compete with dancers from other cultures. If successful, they proceed to the capital to compete at the national level for prestigious trophies. When a village dance is taken out of its original context to be performed for an audience whose members regard it purely as entertainment or as a taste of exotic culture, however, the motivation of the dancers changes radically. The dance's original purpose is replaced by the pursuit of financial gain and prestige. Cultural officers rearrange the performances by stipulating their duration and by concentrating spectacular movements from a number of dances into a single performance. Costumes are changed to suit the occasion or express national sentiment. Exits, entrances, and floor patterns are altered to accommodate the design of a modern stage. In this way, the original social purpose of the dance as understood by an acculturated audience is destroyed, and a style of neo-traditional dance emerges.

      Ritual dances are usually unsuccessful at national festivals. The performance of a priest, whose dance movements are part of a ritual context, loses the vitality that is dependent on response from members of his own culture. On the other hand, the highly organized dance teams of the Tiv are accustomed to performing on a variety of social occasions within their village tradition. Their well-established discipline of rehearsal makes the transition to a modern stage possible and has had spectacular results.

      Thus, some cultures, particularly the more egalitarian, welcome new experiences and can adjust to fresh challenges—though, with continuous repetition for predominantly commercial motives, even spectacular dances like the Igbo Atilogwu or the Zulu war dance can become hackneyed and faded. Other cultures are more conservative toward change, particularly those whose way of life is based on highly structured, hierarchical social and ritual patterns.

Peggy Harper

Additional Reading

Among the studies of particular dance traditions are James W. Fernandez, Bwiti: An Ethnography of the Religious Imagination in Africa (1982), concerned with Gabon; W.D. Hambly, Tribal Dancing and Social Development (1926, reprinted 1974), material on dances of southern, East, and West Africa; Peggy Harper, “Dance,” in Saburi O. Biobaku (ed.), Living Culture of Nigeria (1976), pp. 25–32, an analysis of tradition and change in a wide range of Nigerian cultures; Robin Horton, The Gods as Guests: An Aspect of Kalabari Religious Life (1960), which describes a cycle of Kalabari ritual festivals in the Niger delta and the central role played by masquerade dancers; T.O. Ranger, Dance and Society in Eastern Africa, 1890–1970: The Beni Ngoma (1975); Paul Spencer (ed.), Society and the Dance: The Social Anthropology of Process and Performance (1985); Robert Farris Thompson, African Art in Motion (1974, reissued 1979), a book on African sculpture that contains interesting writing on mime and dance as features of masquerade performance; Hugh Tracey, “The Dancers and Dances,” chapter 3 in his Chopi Musicians: Their Music, Poetry, and Instruments (1948, reprinted 1970), pp. 84–105, an excellent descriptive account, and African Dances of the Witwatersrand Gold Mines (1952), an illustrated description of Bantu dances as performed by workers in the gold mines of South Africa; and Archibald Norman Tucker, Tribal Music and Dancing in the Southern Sudan (Africa) at Social and Ceremonial Gatherings (1933), a useful study of music and rhythms in the dance.Selected articles in the journal African Arts (quarterly) include Paula Ben-Amos and Osarenren Omoregie, “Ekpo Ritual in Avbiama Village,” 2(4):8–13, 79 (Summer 1969), describing the role of masquerades in a ritual festival of the rural Bini of Nigeria; Jean M. Borgatti, “Age Grades, Masquerades, and Leadership Among the Northern Edo,” 16(1):36–51 (November 1982), on the masquerade ceremonies of the Edo in the Bendel state of Nigeria; Paul Gebauer, “Dances of Cameroon,” 4(4):8–15 (Summer 1971), a study of the dance traditions of a number of cultures in Cameroon; Peggy Harper, “Dance in a Changing Society,” 1(1):10–13, 76–77, 79–80 (Autumn 1967), a study of ethnic traditions of dance within Nigerian cultures and the emergence of theatrical forms in urban centres; Pascal James Imperato, “Contemporary Adapted Dances of the Dogon,” 5(1):28–33, 68–72 (Autumn 1971), dealing with tradition and change in the masquerade dances of the Dogon, and “Dances of the Tyi Wara,” 4(1):8–13, 71–80 (Autumn 1970), a study of the use of animal masks by the Tyiwara masqueraders of the Bambara; and J.A.R. Wembah-Rashid, “Isinyago and Midimu: Masked Dancers of Tanzania and Mozambique,” 4(2):38–44 (Winter 1971). Also useful are the following articles: Peggy Harper, “Dance in Nigeria,” Ethnomusicology, 13(2):280–295 (May 1969), on the form and social function of the dance of the Yoruba in Nigeria, “The Kambari People and Their Dances,” Odu, 7:83–96 (April 1972), a study of dance as an expression of the way of life of rural Kambari in Nigeria, and “The Role of Dance in Gẹlẹdẹ Ceremonies of the Village of Ìjìó,” Odu, 4:67–94 (October 1970), a study of dance and dancing masquerades.Few works exist on dance drama of Africa as a special study, and most of them are in French. Additional descriptive material can often be found in more general works by anthropologists, cultural historians, and travelers. See especially Saka Acquaye, “Modern Folk Opera in Ghana,” African Arts, 4(2):60–63 (Winter 1971); Keïta Godeba, “La Danse africaine et la scène,” Présence Africaine, 14–15:202–209 (June–September 1957), on traditional dance forms; Peggy Harper, “African Tradition in Theatre and Liturgy,” Theoria to Theory, 11(3):185–193 (December 1977); 'Biodun Jeyifo, The Yoruba Popular Travelling Theatre of Nigeria (1984), an excellent account; Bakary Traoré, The Black African Theatre and Its Social Functions (1972; originally published in French, 1958), the standard work; and Pierre Verger, Dieux d'Afrique (1954), on the nature and forms of ritual and mime.Peggy Harper John Picton

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