Genetically Modified Foods: The Political Debate

▪ 2001

Norman Myers

      By 2000 genetically modified (GM) foods had created a political furor in many parts of the world. Those on one side of the controversy argued that GM foods could represent one of the biggest advances ever achieved in farming, while those in opposition believed that GM foods could trigger a wide variety of serious environmental and health problems. The scientific evidence supporting either view was far from complete and might not become so without field trials extending over several crop seasons. Public opinion remained deeply divided, sometimes bitterly so.

      The stakes are high, with huge sums invested by giant agribusinesses in the research and development of such foods. The result is a combustible mix of fact and fiction, opinion and prejudice, and governments pitted against one another in one of the most acrimonious policy debates in decades.

      The main proponents of GM foods are Americans, and the main skeptics are Europeans. American farmers have long planted GM crops and are by far the world's largest exporters of GM foods. Only in recent years have they encountered widespread analyses of the crops' benefits and drawbacks. Europe, by contrast, grows only small amounts of GM crops but has become the site of large-scale resistance.

      The question that arises is why GM foods generate such strident reactions. Certain of their benefits are beyond doubt. According to a July 2000 report by Europe's leading scientific body, the Royal Society of London, together with the U.S. National Academy of Sciences and five other leading academies, GM crops resist pests, grow in salty soils, and produce food that is both more nutritious and more stable in storage. Nor is there any doubt about the urgent need for more bountiful farming when humankind is likely to increase its numbers by nearly two billion people within another two decades.

      A crop at the centre of the controversy is oilseed rape. In many parts of Europe, it is often the third most popular crop, after wheat and barley. The oil is used in up to 60% of processed foods, from bread and pizzas to cookies and ice cream. It has been commercially important in Europe for centuries but has become popular in North America (where it is known as canola) only since World War II, when it was grown for use as a lubricant.

      Oilseed rape was one of the first crops to be genetically modified for herbicide tolerance. It has several wild relatives in Europe, such as wild radish and wild turnip. Because the GM plants are resistant to herbicides and there is a possibility that some of these plants could crossbreed with wild relatives and thereby create weeds immune to herbicides, farmers could, according to the critics, witness the emergence of unkillable superweeds. Other concerns include the fact that pollen from corn modified to kill corn borer pests might sometimes land on neighbouring milkweed plants, where it could kill butterfly caterpillars.

      Scientists for the most part have been guardedly in favour of GM farming or have at least been neutral. Invariably, however, they register a strong proviso: that there should be sufficiently comprehensive field trials, over however long a time is necessary, to demonstrate that GM crops are safe in terms of both the environment and public health. In March full-scale trials were approved for three GM crops across England and in Scotland: up to 25 fields of oilseed rape, up to 25 fields of corn, and 30 fields of mixed sugar and fodder beets. The fields are to be monitored regularly to check the spread of pollen, the effects on mammals and birds, and the potential threat of weeds. Conclusive results might not become available for several seasons.

      Environmental activists have been less optimistic than the scientists. In Great Britain Friends of the Earth declared that GM crops are “scientifically nonsensical,” while Greenpeace termed them “a potential tragedy” and “genetic tyranny with almost complete absence of public consultation.” To demonstrate its concerns, Greenpeace ripped up entire fields of GM corn before the plants could produce pollen to be blown into other fields.

      There is also a more philosophical objection, exemplified by Britain's Prince Charles. He believes that humans should not meddle with basic processes of life itself. GM crops, he maintains, betray “the sacred trust between mankind and our Creator.” He inveighs against “the artificial and uncontained transfer of genes between species of plants and animals.” Assertions such as these have engendered deep-seated concerns among many people, concerns that mostly have little to do with strict science. Many European consumers remain suspicious about science in the food arena after the recent dioxin-in-poultry scare in Belgium and the “mad cow” disease outbreak in Britain, even though neither of these problems had anything to do with genetic engineering.

      Equally to the point, Europeans are united in their view that biotechnologies should not be controlled by giant agribusinesses, most of which are American. Companies such as the Monsanto Co. have invested hundreds of millions of dollars in research and development of GM crops. Global sales of GM crop products grew from $75 million in 1995 to $1.5 billion in 1998 and could reach $25 billion by 2010. Although genetic modification and release of GM foods are closely regulated in Europe, there are few overarching bodies (as opposed to specialist committees) to monitor the impact of GM crops on agriculture generally and to consider the cumulative effects of such crops.

      Conversely, Americans insist that their country has the highest food-safety standards in the world and that the new products have been thoroughly analyzed and approved by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Food and Drug Administration. They also point out that for a number of years Americans have been eating large amounts of genetically modified foods without suffering any apparent adverse effects. In addition, Americans protest against Europe's “artificial” trade barriers that limit imports of agricultural products, as evidenced by Europe's 1998 refusal to allow entry of certain genetically modified corn varieties, costing American farmers some $200 million in lost sales.

      Finally, a major concern in 2000 centred on public trust in both the scientists and the agribusiness leaders. Without greater public support, the GM industry in Europe is likely to remain undeveloped. Opinion polls consistently show that more than 80% of the public there do not want GM foods. As a result, many European food producers and suppliers alike are working to reduce or eradicate GM organisms in the food chain. They will almost certainly continue to do so until policy decisions on the GM issue are seen to be taken in light of reliable, comprehensive, and objective information—a resource that is in short supply thus far. Fortunately, product labeling, a critically important measure, is becoming widespread in Europe and is becoming more common in the U.S.

      In response to this challenge, GM advocates need to improve their communications if public opinion is to be convinced that the advantages outweigh the risks. Efforts should be made to listen to, as well as speak to, the public. The issue is one not only of the public's understanding of science but also of scientists' understanding of the public. Norman Myers is a consultant scientist in environment and development and a visiting fellow of Green College, Oxford.

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