prostate cancer

Malignant tumour of the prostate gland.

Prostate cancer commonly occurs in men over age 50. Symptoms include frequent or painful urination, blood in the urine, sexual dysfunction, swollen lymph nodes in the groin, and pain in the pelvis, hips, back, or ribs. The likelihood of developing prostate cancer doubles if there is a family history. Treatment may include surgery, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of two or more of these approaches.

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Introduction

      disease characterized by uncontrolled growth of cells within the prostate gland, a walnut-sized organ surrounding the urethra just below the bladder in males. Worldwide among males, the incidence of prostate cancer is surpassed only by lung and stomach cancers; among North American men, only skin cancer occurs more often. Prostate cancer is rare in men below the age of 50, and in North America the disease is twice as common in black men as it is in whites. Prostate cancer should not be confused with benign prostate hyperplasia, which has similar symptoms and occurs often in older men but is not a type of cancer.

Causes and symptoms

      When the prostate gland becomes cancerous, it can put pressure on the urethra, causing frequent or painful urination. Such pressure can also cause difficulty in urinating, a weak and intermittent urine flow, or blood in the urine. The cancerous growth may also put pressure on the nerves required for erection, causing impotence or sexual dysfunction. Other symptoms of prostate cancer include swollen lymph nodes in the groin and pain in the pelvis, hips, back, or ribs. As in most cancers, the causes of prostate cancer are varied, though most cases are thought to be related to the male hormone androgen. The likelihood of a man's developing prostate cancer doubles if a parent or sibling has had prostate cancer; this suggests that genetic factors play a role. Two genes, known as BRCA1 (breast cancer type 1) and BRCA2 (breast cancer type 2), have been linked to prostate cancer. As their names imply, they are commonly found in mutated forms in some women with breast cancer. However, studies have shown that men carrying mutations in BRCA2 have an increased risk of developing prostate cancer, and mutations in either gene can significantly reduce survival.

Diagnosis

      Prostate cancers usually grow very slowly, and individuals may not display symptoms for some time. If the prostate is enlarged, preliminary diagnosis can be made by rectal examination or transrectal ultrasound (TRUS). A blood test for prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is used to detect prostate tumours in their earliest stages. If any of these tests suggest cancer, a biopsy is done to confirm the diagnosis. When caught early, prostate cancer is treatable. A large majority of prostate cancers are diagnosed either before they have spread or when they have spread only locally. Survival rates in these cases are very high.

Treatment (therapeutics)

      Because prostate cancers usually progress slowly, a physician may recommend a “watchful waiting” approach rather than immediate treatment. This is especially true for patients who are elderly or in otherwise poor health. If treatment is required, the physician may use surgery, radiation, hormone therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of two or more of these approaches. surgery is usually done only if the cancer has not spread from the prostate. The removal of the entire prostate plus some surrounding tissues (radical prostectomy) may be considered if examination of the pelvic lymph nodes reveals that they are not cancerous. Surgical risks include impotence and urinary incontinence. A second surgical procedure, transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP), is used to relieve symptoms but does not remove all of the cancer. TURP is often used in men who cannot have a radical prostectomy because of advanced age or illness or in men who have a noncancerous enlargement of the prostate. In men who are unable to have traditional surgery, cryosurgery may also be used. In this procedure, a metal probe is inserted into the cancerous regions of the prostate; liquid nitrogen is then used to freeze the probe, killing the surrounding cells.

      If the cancer has spread from the prostate, radiation therapy may be used. Hormone therapy attacks the male hormones (androgens (androgen)) that often stimulate the growth of prostate cancer. A form of hormone therapy involves drugs called LHRH analogs, or LHRH agonists, that chemically block the production of androgens. Side effects of hormone therapy may include reduced libido, abnormal growth or sensitivity of the breasts, and hot flashes. Orchiectomy, or removal of the testes, cuts off the tumour's supply of testosterone. This surgery can delay or stop tumour growth and eliminates the need for hormone therapy. If surgery or hormone therapy fails, chemotherapy may be used. Chemotherapy employs drugs that kill dividing cells (i.e., cancer cells) but is not highly effective in treating prostate cancer. It can, however, slow the growth of the tumour.

      Other drugs, called antiandrogens, block the activity of androgens and are often used in combination with other forms of hormone therapy. An antiandrogen called abiraterone inhibits the activity of an enzyme involved in testosterone synthesis in the testes and adrenal glands. In clinical trials, abiraterone has shown promise in treating patients with aggressive end-stage prostate cancer, which is usually refractory to hormone therapy and is often fatal. Treatment with abiraterone is associated with reductions in tumour size and PSA levels. Its side effects appear to be limited primarily to hypertension, edema, and potassium deficiency.

Prevention (preventive medicine)

      Risk factors for prostate cancer such as age, race, or family history cannot be avoided. However, studies have suggested that a diet low in fats and high in fruits and vegetables decreases prostate cancer risk. Compounds called lycopenes (lycopene), which are present in grapefruit, tomatoes, and watermelon, have been linked to reduced risk, as has the nutrient selenium, which is found in nuts, oranges, and wheat germ.

      Physicians disagree on the usefulness of routine screening for prostate cancer. Most medical societies and government agencies feel that screening has not proved to reduce prostate cancer mortality and therefore do not recommend screening. Some medical societies, however, recommend an annual PSA test and digital rectal examination at age 50 for most men and at age 45 for men at higher risk.

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