computer animation

also known as computer generated images (CGI)

Form of animated graphics that has replaced "stop-motion" animation of scale-model puppets or drawings.

Efforts to lessen the labour and costs of animation have led to simplification and computerization. Computers can be used in every step of sophisticated animation

for example, to automate the movement of the rostrum camera or to supply the in-between drawings for full animation. When a three-dimensional figure is translated into computer terms (digitized), the computer can generate and display a sequence of images that seem to move or rotate the object through space. Hence computer animation can simulate highly complex motion for medical and other scientific researchers, as well as for feature films.

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▪ 1997

by Bruce C. Steele

      "Jurassic Park will turn me into a dinosaur!" predicted one 3-D animator upon seeing the computer-generated lizards in Steven Spielberg's 1993 summer blockbuster. Indeed, some two years later, that forecast may have been fulfilled. In the world of feature filmmaking, CGI (computer-generated images) have crushed the demand for the kind of 3-D, or "stop-motion," animation of scale model puppets that had held sway in Hollywood since even before the original King Kong (1933). The victorious CGI troop was not a herd of velociraptors but a menagerie of playthings in what reviewer Jack Mathews in 1996 quickly dubbed the "irrepressible, magical, 100 percent computer-animated" feature film Toy Story.

      Released by the Walt Disney Co., in November 1995, Toy Story drew audiences steadily into the early months of 1996, earned its computer-generated heroes a featured bit on the Academy Awards telecast in March, with a special Oscar for director John Lasseter, and may eventually earn more than half a billion dollars in theatres and on video in the United States alone. Bearing out every 3-D animator's worst fear, Toy Story's returns were 10 times that of Disney's April 1996 partly animated, partly stop-motion animated release James and the Giant Peach (based on Roald Dahl's 1961 children's book). Even the studio's traditional "cell-animated" (hand-drawn, or 2-D) The Hunchback of Notre Dame, released in June, and Warner Brothers' splashy, heavily promoted Space Jam (combining 2-D and CGI animation with live action), though hugely successful by most measures, could not compare.

      The first feature-length effort produced at the northern California company Pixar Animation Studios, Toy Story set the standard in a year that saw hit after hit build its success upon the magic of CGI, from top-grossing Independence Day and Twister to Disney's own year-end smash, the live-action remake of 101 Dalmatians (with computer-duplicated puppies). Animation expert Edwin Catmoll, in the industry magazine Millimeter, predicted before Toy Story's release that "like Snow White and Star Wars, it is going to affect the entire film industry." So it did. As studio after studio expanded its feature animation division—including Disney, Warner Brothers, Twentieth Century-Fox, Universal Pictures, and Spielberg's two-year-old DreamWorks SKG—many 3-D animators left their poseable puppets in favour of well-paid CGI jobs. All 27 computer animators on Toy Story, Disney reported, had backgrounds in stop-motion, cell, or clay animation.

      With the potential for hundreds of millions of dollars in revenues, the art of film animation in 1996 often stood in the shadow of the huge business of financing these projects. Some industry observers estimated the studio's expenses on Space Jam, for example, at more than $100 million (a figure Warner Brothers said was inflated). Marketing tie-ins became vital to offset the high production price tags. For Toy Story alone, Disney relied on an estimated $125 million worth of promotions through "advertising partners" such as Frito Lay, Minute Maid, and Burger King, the last of which also signed up for the Hunchback launch and the year's video rerelease of Disney's 1988 cartoon feature Oliver & Company. This figure did not include the studio's additional earnings from the sales of related toys, collectibles, and clothing.

      It was somehow appropriate, then, that Space Jam—in which basketball star Michael Jordan teamed up with the studio's classic Looney Tunes characters, such as Bugs Bunny and Daffy Duck—was inspired in part by a 1992 Nike footwear TV commercial pairing Jordan and Bugs. The director of that ad, Joe Pytka, also directed the Warner Brothers feature. Wall Street firm Smith Barney dubbed Space Jam a "totally integrated consumer product event."

      The fact that stop-motion could not compete in this new game was driven home during the production of another Warner Brothers release, director Tim Burton's Mars Attacks!, a live-action film with animated Martians. English stop-motion animator Barry Purvis and a crew of 70 worked for eight months posing puppets, one frame at a time, in the fashion of James and the Giant Peach and the popular The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993), both of which Burton had produced. With little warning, however, the studio shut down Purvis's Mars Attacks! unit. Their work was discarded and replaced by CGI.

      The only bright spot of the year for stop-motion's success in movie theatres came from the clay man-and-dog duo Wallace and Gromit, created by British animator Nick Park. A feature-length omnibus including the latest half-hour Wallace and Gromit adventure, A Close Shave, which won Park his third Oscar in March, was an art house hit and a favourite holiday gift on video. Park, however, works in short forms and relies on work in television commercials for income. Wallace and Gromit are not movie stars.

      The CGI revolution in feature animation, for all its sweeping implications, did not originate with brazen young independent filmmakers. It came from within the industry establishment itself. Lasseter and Peach director Henry Selick both studied animation (along with Burton) at the Disney-founded California Institute of the Arts in the late 1970s, and both were Disney staff animators on 2-D projects such as The Fox and the Hound (1981) before turning to CGI and stop-motion. In truth, Toy Story's success owed as much to its adherence to movie traditions as to the novelty of its images. Early features with CGI such as Tron (1982) and The Last Starfighter (1984) hooked their effects to the popularity at the time of video arcade games. Toy Story tapped a richer vein by building its story around a classic "buddy picture" premise—rival toys Woody the pull-string cowboy and flashy plastic Buzz Lightyear must join forces to survive a difficult journey.

      In fact, Disney had been traveling quietly down the CGI highway for many years. In 1992 the studio shared with Pixar a special Oscar for development of a computer animation process called CAPS, used in Disney's 2-D feature Beauty and the Beast (1991). The most famous CAPS shot is part of that film's ballroom sequence, when the camera seems to fly in a circle from the ceiling to a close-up of the waltzing couple—a shot parodied by the antiheroes of the 1996 feature animation release by Paramount Pictures, Beavis and Butt-head Do America. The homage makes an unintended point: as divergent as each animated film may be, the winners inevitably return to the lessons of previous successes. Except for the word "computers," Lasseter's comments in the Toy Story production notes could easily have come from Walt Disney himself: "We're storytellers who happen to use computers. Story and character come first and that is what drives everything else. You can dazzle an audience with brand-new technology but in the end people walk away from a movie remembering the characters."

Bruce C. Steele is the executive editor of Out magazine.

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