Orange River

River, southern Africa.

It rises in the Lesotho Highlands as the Sinqu River and flows west as the Orange across South Africa. It passes the southern edge of the Kalahari Desert and winds through the Namib Desert before draining into the Atlantic Ocean in South Africa. It forms the border between South Africa and Namibia. It is about 1,300 mi (2,100 km) long. There are some irrigated sections along the river and many dams but no large towns.

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▪ river, Africa

Introduction

 river in southern Africa, one of the longest rivers on the continent and one of the longest south of the Tropic of Capricorn. After rising in the Lesotho Highlands, less than 125 miles (200 kilometres) from the Indian Ocean, the river flows to the Atlantic Ocean in a generally westerly direction for some 1,300 miles. The Orange traverses the veld region of South Africa, after which it defines the southern limit of the Kalahari and bisects the southern Namib before draining into the Atlantic at Alexander Bay, S.Af. Along its course the river forms the eastern boundary of the South African (South Africa) province of Free State, as well as the boundary between Namibia and South Africa.

      The Orange River—together with the Vaal, its principal tributary—forms a drainage basin with an area of at least 330,000 square miles (855,000 square kilometres). The western part of the basin is generally dry, flat, and unamenable to cultivation without irrigation. The river itself is of vital economic importance to the region through which it flows. Two projects—the Orange River Project and the Lesotho Highland Project, both in various stages of construction—have been designed to meet the water demand for irrigation, urbanization, and economic development in the central industrial areas of South Africa.

Physical features

Physiography

      The headwaters of the Orange River rise at an altitude of about 10,800 feet (3,300 metres) above sea level on a dissected plateau formed by the Lesotho Highlands that extends from the Drakensberg escarpment in the east to the Maloti (Maloti Mountains) (Maluti) Mountains in the west. The main source of the Orange River is officially recognized as the Sinqu (Senqu) River, which rises near the plateau's eastern edge. The Seati (Khubedu) headwater rises near Mont-aux-Sources to the north. Still farther north is the lesser-known Malibamatso headwater, one site of the Lesotho Highland Project. The Lesotho headwaters flow over the turf soil that covers Drakensberg lava and cut through the lava to expose underlying sedimentary rocks; material eroded from these rocks contributes to heavy silt deposits farther down the river's course.

      After entering South Africa southwest of Lesotho, the river flows south and west through more open country, where sandstones, shales, and mudstones appear on the surface and where hard dolerite outcrops form small hills and flat-topped mountains. Near Aliwal North the river has eroded a broad valley some 30 miles wide and more than 1,000 feet deep. The river's channel, however, varies greatly in both width and depth because of dolerite outcrops that sometimes narrow it to 3,000 or 4,000 feet. The river receives the Caledon (Caledon River) as a tributary at the head of the Gariep (formerly Hendrik Verwoerd) Reservoir.

      From the Gariep (formerly Hendrik Verwoerd) Dam the Orange swings to the northwest to its confluence with the Vaal River. The Vaal, which rises in Eastern Transvaal province, flows west through the major population and industrial core of South Africa before turning south and joining the Orange near the town of Douglas. The Orange then turns southwest and flows over calcrete and tillite (glacial clayey deposit). At Prieska it makes another sharp bend to the northwest, and this marks the beginning of its middle course. Quartzites and ironstones form a “barrier zone” through which the river has cut deep gorges. At Upington the river—by then flowing westward—spreads out over a granite surface. In this area the Orange splits up into innumerable channels, between which are islands of varying length; and the river attains its greatest width, which may reach nearly four miles in places. About 40 miles downstream from Upington, however, the riverbed is suddenly narrowed to about 2,000 feet.

      Some 20 miles below Kakamas the Orange—again flowing in several channels—forms the Augrabies Falls. There, after descending in a series of rapids, the river plunges into a deep pool. The river flows through an almost vertical-sided gorge for about 11 miles, emerging again into more open country. The lower course of the river, from the Augrabies Falls to the sea, is sometimes called the Gorge Tract. Where the rock surface is soft, the river valley is generally open. Where the river traverses harder igneous rock, however, it is confined between almost vertical cliffs more than 1,000 feet high in places. Some of the Orange's most rugged passages are found in the last section of the river, as it flows along the Richtersveld before turning west to the Namib coastal desert.

      The Orange reaches the sea a few miles north of the little inlet known as Alexander Bay. The mouth is less than three miles wide and is nearly closed by sandbars, which are widely breached during high floods. The gap in the southern end of the bars is maintained by the outflow of water from the river mouth during low tides and by the tidal inflow at high tides.

Climate and hydrology

      The rainfall patterns in the Orange basin have a direct effect on the river's rate of flow. In Lesotho, above the confluence with the Caledon, the rainfall averages 28 to 32 inches (700 to 800 millimetres) annually; and, combined with the melted winter snows of the highland areas, this small area contributes nearly 60 percent of the Orange River's total annual flow. From the Caledon to the Vaal annual rainfall decreases to about 11 to 16 inches a year, and below the Vaal confluence it decreases from 9 inches to less than 2 inches in the Namib.

      The amount of rainfall reaching the river as runoff decreases from about 16 percent in Lesotho to less than one-half of 1 percent in the lower Orange catchment. Conversely, summer maximum temperatures increase from east to west, the high exceeding 86° F (30° C) on an average 5 days per year in Lesotho and 150 days per year in the west. The result of these phenomena is a tremendous increase in the rate of evaporation from east to west. Waters lost to evaporation may amount to 12 times the total precipitation in the lower course of the Orange, and the potential storage capacity of reservoirs in the drier regions may be reduced by up to 60 percent.

The people and economy

      The high valleys of the Orange River's headwaters are uninhabited, though the adjacent plateaus are used by the southern Sotho (Basuto) people for grazing land. Between the Lesotho border and the town of Aliwal North, corn (maize) is cultivated, and this region is also used as pasturage for cattle and sheep. The dry shrub country farther downstream is in general suitable only for grazing. Irrigated sections, however, occur along the river's course; the largest such area is between Upington and the Augrabies Falls, downstream of the Boegoeberg Dam (located midway between Prieska and Upington), where cotton, alfalfa (lucerne), grapes, and dates are grown. While scattered farms stand within reach of the river's freshwater supply, there are no large towns along the riverbank. This situation remains little changed by the Orange River Project (see below): much of the water accumulated by its dams is diverted to the valleys of the Fish and Sundays rivers and to the cities of Port Elizabeth, Bloemfontein, and Kimberley.

Transportation

      Navigation is impossible throughout the river's course because of its irregular flow, its constant interruption by falls and rapids, and the silting that occurs in its channels and at the river mouth. Many bridges cross the river along its course between Aliwal North and Oranjemund, the largest being at Upington.

Irrigation

      Large irrigation and hydroelectric projects have been hampered on much of the Orange by the enormous amount of waterborne silt that clogs up reservoirs and reduces storage capacity. Efforts to combat this problem have included adding sluice gates to the Boegoeberg Dam (completed in 1931), which allow much of the silt to pass through.

      In order to obtain comprehensive control of the river, the Orange River Project was located farther upstream, between the Caledon and Vaal confluences. The plan consists of a number of dam and canal projects; work began in 1962. The completed projects include the Gariep Dam (1972), which has formed the Gariep Reservoir; the Van der Kloof (formerly P.K. le Roux) Dam (1977), about 90 miles downstream from the Gariep Dam; a tunnel some 50 miles long (1975), which carries water from the Gariep Dam to the Great Fish River; and an irrigation canal between the Great Fish and Sundays rivers. Projects still under construction in the 1990s included the Van der Kloof irrigation canals below the Van der Kloof Dam.

      The two dams have also been equipped to deal with heavy silt accumulation. They have deep dead-storage areas, and their high walls can be raised if necessary to allow for a higher water level. The Gariep Dam is the major water-conservation structure of the project. Its main function is to store sufficient water in its reservoir for further distribution via the Van der Kloof Dam or the Orange–Great Fish tunnel. The maximum height of the dam is 254 feet above the riverbed, it is 3,110 feet long along its crest, and the Gariep Reservoir has a maximum surface area of about 140 square miles. The Van der Kloof Dam has a maximum height of 351 feet, it is 2,510 feet long along its crest, and the reservoir has a maximum surface area of 54 square miles. Both dams have hydroelectric power stations, and their reservoirs provide water-recreation facilities.

      Measures to increase the capacity of the Vaal River have also been undertaken. Water has been obtained via the Tugela-Vaal Water Project. More water will be supplied to the Vaal by the Lesotho Highland Project, which, when complete, will consist of several dams and storage reservoirs in the basins of the Sinqu, Malibamatso, and Senqunyane rivers.

Study and exploration

      The first white man known to cross the river to the north bank was an Afrikaner elephant hunter, Jacobus Coetsee, who forded the Groot River, as it was then called, near the river mouth in 1760. Later expeditions across the river in the 18th century were led by the Afrikaner explorer Hendrik Hop; Robert Jacob Gordon, a Dutch officer; William Paterson, an English traveler; and the French explorer François Le Vaillant. They explored the river from its middle course to its mouth, and Gordon named it in honour of the Dutch house of Orange. Mission stations were established north of the Orange from the late 18th century. In 1813 John Campbell of the London Missionary Society traced the Harts River and from its junction with the Vaal followed the latter stream to its confluence with the Orange, which he explored as far as the Augrabies Falls. The source of the Orange was first reached by the French Protestant missionaries Thomas Arbousset and François Daumas in 1836.

      Throughout the 19th century, the Orange River marked the northern limit of British power in southern Africa. Beginning in the 1830s, the Boers crossed it in search of land and freedom from British rule; they named their first republic—the Orange Free State—for the river.

John H. Wellington Phillip S. Hattingh Johann Cooks

Additional Reading

Works on the Orange River include Department of Water Affairs, Management of the Water Resources of the Republic of South Africa (1986); and Monica M. Cole, South Africa, 2nd ed. (1966).Phillip S. Hattingh Johann Cooks

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