Mann, Thomas

born June 6, 1875, Lübeck, Ger.

died Aug. 12, 1955, near Zürich, Switz.

German novelist and essayist, considered the greatest German novelist of the 20th century.

After a brief period of office work, Mann devoted himself to writing, as had his elder brother Heinrich (1871–1950). Buddenbrooks (1901), his first novel, was an elegy for old bourgeois virtues. In the novella Death in Venice (1912), a sombre masterpiece, he took up the tragic dilemma of the artist in a collapsing society. Though ardently patriotic at the start of World War I, after 1919 he slowly revised his views of the authoritarian German state. His great novel The Magic Mountain (1924) clarified his growing espousal of Enlightenment principles as one strand of a complex and multifaceted whole. An outspoken opponent of Nazism, he fled to Switzerland on Adolf Hitler's accession; he settled in the U.S. in 1938 but returned to Switzerland in 1952. His tetralogy Joseph and His Brothers (1933–43) concerns the biblical Joseph. Doctor Faustus (1947), his most directly political novel, analyzes the darker aspects of the German soul. The often hilarious Felix Krull, Confidence Man (1954) remained unfinished. He is noted for his finely wrought style enriched by humour, irony, and parody and for his subtle, many-layered narratives of vast intellectual scope. His essays examined such figures as Leo Tolstoy, Sigmund Freud, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Nietzsche, Anton Chekhov, and Friedrich Schiller. He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1929.

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▪ German author

Introduction

born June 6, 1875, Lübeck, Ger.

died Aug. 12, 1955, near Zürich, Switz.

 German novelist and essayist whose early novels—Buddenbrooks (1900), Der Tod in Venedig (1912; Death in Venice), and Der Zauberberg (1924; The Magic Mountain)—earned him the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1929.

Early literary endeavours

      Mann's father died in 1891, and Mann moved to Munich, a centre of art and literature, where he lived until 1933. After perfunctory work in an insurance office and on the editorial staff of Simplicissimus, a satirical weekly, he devoted himself to writing, as his elder brother Heinrich had already done. His early tales, collected as Der kleine Herr Friedemann (1898), reflect the aestheticism of the 1890s but are given depth by the influence of the philosophers Schopenhauer (Schopenhauer, Arthur) and Nietzsche (Nietzsche, Friedrich) and the composer Wagner (Wagner, Richard), to all of whom Mann was always to acknowledge a deep, if ambiguous, debt. Most of Mann's first stories centre in the problem of the creative artist, who in his devotion to form contests the meaninglessness of existence, an antithesis that Mann enlarged into that between spirit (Geist) and life (Leben). But while he showed sympathy for the artistic misfits he described, Mann was also aware that the world of imagination is a world of make-believe, and the closeness of the artist to the charlatan was already becoming a theme. At the same time, a certain nostalgia for ordinary, unproblematical life appeared in his work.

      This ambivalence found full expression in his first novel, Buddenbrooks, which Mann had at first intended to be a novella in which the experience of the transcendental realities of Wagner's music would extinguish the will to live in the son of a bourgeois family. On this beginning, the novel builds the story of the family and its business house over four generations, showing how an artistic streak not only unfits the family's later members for the practicalities of business life but undermines their vitality as well. But, almost against his will, in Buddenbrooks Mann wrote a tender elegy for the old bourgeois virtues.

      In 1905 Mann married Katja Pringsheim. There were six children of the marriage, which was a happy one. It was this happiness, perhaps, that led Mann, in Royal Highness, to provide a fairy-tale reconciliation of “form” and “life,” of degenerate feudal authority and the vigour of modern American capitalism. In 1912, however, he returned to the tragic dilemma of the artist with Death in Venice, a sombre masterpiece. In this story, the main character, a distinguished writer whose nervous and “decadent” sensibility is controlled by the discipline of style and composition, seeks relaxation from overstrain in Venice, where, as disease creeps over the city, he succumbs to an infatuation and the wish for death. Symbols of eros and death weave a subtle pattern in the sensuous opulence of this tale, which closes an epoch in Mann's work.

World War I and political crisis

      The outbreak of World War I evoked Mann's ardent patriotism and awoke, too, an awareness of the artist's social commitment. His brother Heinrich (Mann, Heinrich) was one of the few German writers to question German war aims, and his criticism of German authoritarianism stung Thomas to a bitter attack on cosmopolitan litterateurs. In 1918 he published a large political treatise, Reflections of an Unpolitical Man, in which all his ingenuity of mind was summoned to justify the authoritarian state as against democracy, creative irrationalism as against “flat” rationalism, and inward culture as against moralistic civilization. This work belongs to the tradition of “revolutionary conservatism” that leads from the 19th-century German nationalistic and antidemocratic thinkers Paul Anton de Lagarde and Houston Stewart Chamberlain (Chamberlain, Houston Stewart), the apostle of the superiority of the “Germanic” race, toward National Socialism; and Mann later was to repudiate these ideas.

      With the establishment of the German (Weimar) Republic in 1919, Mann slowly revised his outlook; the essays “Goethe und Tolstoi” and “Von deutscher Republik” (“The German Republic”) show his somewhat hesitant espousal of democratic principles. His new position was clarified in the novel The Magic Mountain. Its theme grows out of an earlier motif: a young engineer, Hans Castorp, visiting a cousin in a sanatorium in Davos, abandons practical life to submit to the rich seductions of disease, inwardness, and death. But the sanatorium comes to be the spiritual reflection of the possibilities and dangers of the actual world. In the end, somewhat skeptically but humanely, Castorp decides for life and service to his people: a decision Mann calls “a leave-taking from many a perilous sympathy, enchantment, and temptation, to which the European soul had been inclined.” In this great work Mann formulates with remarkable insight the fateful choices facing Europe.

World War II and exile

      From this time onward Mann's imaginative effort was directed to the novel, scarcely interrupted by the charming personal novella Early Sorrow or by Mario and the Magician, a novella that, in the person of a seedy illusionist, symbolizes the character of Fascism. His literary and cultural essays began to play an ever-growing part in elucidating and communicating his awareness of the fragility of humaneness, tolerance, and reason in the face of political crisis. His essays on Freud (1929) and Wagner (1933) are concerned with this, as are those on Goethe (Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von) (1932), who more and more became for Mann an exemplary figure in his wisdom and balance. The various essays on Nietzsche document with particular poignancy Mann's struggle against attitudes once dear to him. In 1930 he gave a courageous address in Berlin, “Ein Appell an die Vernunft” (“An Appeal to Reason”), appealing for the formation of a common front of the cultured bourgeoisie and the Socialist working class against the inhuman fanaticism of the National Socialists (National Socialism). In essays and on lecture tours in Germany, to Paris, Vienna, Warsaw, Amsterdam, and elsewhere during the 1930s, Mann, while steadfastly attacking Nazi policy, often expressed sympathy with socialist and communist principles in the very general sense that they were the guarantee of humanism and freedom.

      When Hitler became chancellor early in 1933, Mann and his wife, on holiday in Switzerland, were warned by their son and daughter in Munich not to return. For some years his home was in Switzerland, near Zürich, but he traveled widely, visiting the United States on lecture tours and finally, in 1938, settling there, first at Princeton, and from 1941 to 1952 in southern California. In 1936 he was deprived of his German citizenship; in the same year the University of Bonn took away the honorary doctorate it had bestowed in 1919 (it was restored in 1949). From 1936 to 1944 Mann was a citizen of Czechoslovakia. In 1944 he became a U.S. citizen.

      After the war, Mann visited both East Germany and West Germany several times and received many public honours, but he refused to return to Germany to live. In 1952 he settled again near Zürich. His last major essays—on Goethe (1949), Chekhov (1954), and Schiller (1955)—are impressive evocations of the moral and social responsibilities of writers.

Later novels

      The novels on which Mann was working throughout this period reflect variously the cultural crisis of his times. In 1933 he published The Tales of Jacob (U.S. title, Joseph and His Brothers), the first part of his four-part novel on the biblical Joseph, continued the following year in The Young Joseph and two years later with Joseph in Egypt, and completed with Joseph the Provider in 1943. In the complete work, published as Joseph and His Brothers, Mann reinterpreted the biblical story as the emergence of mobile, responsible individuality out of the tribal collective, of history out of myth, and of a human God out of the unknowable. In the first volume a timeless myth seems to be reenacted in the lives of the Hebrews. Joseph, however, though sustained by the belief that his life too is the reenactment of a myth, is thrown out of the “timeless collective” into Egypt, the world of change and history, and there learns the management of events, ideas, and himself. Though based on wide and scholarly study of history, the work is not a historical novel, and the “history” is full of irony and humour, of conscious modernization. Mann's concern is to provide a myth for his own times, capable of sustaining and directing his generation and of restoring a belief in the power of humane reason.

      Mann took time off from this work to write, in the same spirit, his Lotte in Weimar (U.S. title, The Beloved Returns). Lotte Kestner, the heroine of Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther, his semi-autobiographical story of unrequited love and romantic despair, visits Weimar in old age to see once again her old lover, now famous, and win some acknowledgment from him. But Goethe remains distant and refuses to reenter the past; she learns from him that true reverence for man means also acceptance of and reverence for change, intelligent activity directed to the “demand of the day.” In this, as in the Joseph novels, in settings so distant from his own time, Mann was seeking to define the essential principles of humane civilization; their spacious and often humorous serenity of tone implicitly challenges the inhuman irrationalism of the Nazis.

      In Doktor Faustus, begun in 1943 at the darkest period of the war, Mann wrote the most directly political of his novels. It is the life story of a German composer, Adrian Leverkühn, born in 1885, who dies in 1940 after 10 years of mental alienation. A solitary, estranged figure, he “speaks” the experience of his times in his music, and the story of Leverkühn's compositions is that of German culture in the two decades before 1930—more specifically of the collapse of traditional humanism and the victory of the mixture of sophisticated nihilism and barbaric primitivism that undermine it. With imaginative insight Mann interpreted the new musical forms and themes of Leverkühn's compositions up to the final work, a setting of the lament of Doctor Faustus in the 16th-century version of the Faust legend, who once, in hope, had made a pact with the Devil, but in the end is reduced to hopelessness. The one gleam of hope in this sombre work, however, in which the personal tragedy of Leverkühn is subtly related to Germany's destruction in the war through the comments of the fictitious narrator, Zeitblom, lies in its very grief.

      The composition of the novel was fully documented by Mann in 1949 in The Genesis of a Novel. Doktor Faustus exhausted him as no other work of his had done, and The Holy Sinner and The Black Swan, published in 1951 and 1953, respectively, show a relaxation of intensity in spite of their accomplished, even virtuoso style. Mann rounded off his imaginative work in 1954 with The Confessions of Felix Krull, Confidence Man, the light, often uproariously funny story of a confidence man who wins the favour and love of others by enacting the roles they desire of him.

      Mann's style is finely wrought and full of resources, enriched by humour, irony, and parody; his composition is subtle and many-layered, brilliantly realistic on one level and yet reaching to deeper levels of symbolism. His works lack simplicity, and his tendency to set his characters at a distance by his own ironical view of them has sometimes laid him open to the charge of lack of heart. He was, however, aware that simplicity and sentiment lend themselves to manipulation by ideological and political powers, and the sometimes elaborate sophistication of his works cannot hide from the discerning reader his underlying impassioned and tender solicitude for mankind.

Assessment

      Mann was the greatest German novelist of the 20th century, and by the end of his life his works had acquired the status of classics both within and without Germany. His subtly structured novels and shorter stories constitute a persistent and imaginative enquiry into the nature of Western bourgeois (bourgeoisie) culture, in which a haunting awareness of its precariousness and threatened disintegration is balanced by an appreciation of and tender concern for its spiritual achievements. Round this central theme cluster a group of related problems that recur in different forms—the relation of thought to reality and of the artist to society, the complexity of reality and of time, the seductions of spirituality, eros, and death. Mann's imaginative and practical involvement in the social and political catastrophes of his time provided him with fresh insights that make his work rich and varied. His finely wrought essays, notably those on Tolstoy, Goethe, Freud, and Nietzsche, record the intellectual struggles through which he reached the ethical commitment that shapes the major imaginative works.

Roy Pascal

Additional Reading

The most complete collection of Mann's work is Gesammelte Werke, 13 vol. (1960–74). Hans Bürgin, Das Werk Thomas Manns (1959), is a bibliography. There are many volumes of Mann's correspondence, the most complete being Briefe, ed. by Erika Mann, 3 vol. (1961–65), selected and edited by his daughter. Letters of Thomas Mann, 1889–1955, compiled and trans. by Richard Winston and Clara Winston, 2 vol. (1970), is also recommended. Autobiographisches, compiled by Erika Mann (1968), contains his autobiographical essays.Biographies by family members include Erika Mann, The Last Year of Thomas Mann (1958, reissued 1970; also published as The Last Year, 1958; originally published in German, 1956); and Viktor Mann, Wir waren fünf, 3rd rev. ed. (1973), a description of the childhood home by his younger brother. Hans Bürgin and Hans-Otto Mayer, Thomas Mann: A Chronicle of His Life (1969; originally published in German, 1965), gives a detailed account. Nigel Hamilton, The Brothers Mann (1978), on Heinrich and Thomas, is especially good. Richard Winston, Thomas Mann: The Making of an Artist, 1875–1911 (1981, reprinted 1990), covers Mann's early years. Biographies written with access to Mann's posthumously published diaries include Anthony Heilbut, Thomas Mann: Eros and Literature (1995), focusing on Mann's life and works through his fifties; Ronald Hayman, Thomas Mann (1995); Donald Prater, Thomas Mann (1995); and Hermann Kurzke, Thomas Mann: Life as a Work of Art (2002; originally published in German, 1999).Klaus W. Jonas, Fifty Years of Thomas Mann Studies (1955), reissued 1969), gives a bibliography of contemporary critical studies. Georg Lukács (György Lukács), Essays on Thomas Mann (1964, reprinted 1978; originally published in German, 1949), presents Marxist essays that are shrewdly critical as well as admiring. Charles Neider (ed.), The Stature of Thomas Mann (1947, reissued 1968); and Erich Kahler, The Orbit of Thomas Mann (1969), collections of essays, are also recommended. Broad studies of his works are Esther H. Lesér, Thomas Mann's Short Fiction, ed. by Mitzi Brunsdale (1989), an examination of Mann's intellectual development through his works; Martin Travers, Thomas Mann (1992); and Irvin Stock, Ironic Out of Love: The Novels of Thomas Mann (1994). In-depth treatments of individual works include Martin Swales, Buddenbrooks: Family Life as the Mirror of Social Change (1991); T.J. Reed, Death in Venice: Making and Unmaking a Master (1994); and Michael Beddow, Thomas Mann: Doctor Faustus (1994). Two collections of criticism on individual works are Hugh Ridley, The Problematic Bourgeois: Twentieth-Century Criticism on Thomas Mann's Buddenbrooks and The Magic Mountain (1994); and John Francis Fetzer, Changing Perceptions of Thomas Mann's Doctor Faustus: Criticism, 1947–1992 (1996). Useful introductions to Mann's works include Ritchie Robertson (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Thomas Mann (2002); and Hannelore Mundt, Understanding Thomas Mann (2004).

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