Ikhwān

(Arabic; "Brethren")

Religious and military brotherhood that helped Ibn Saūd unite the Arabian Peninsula.

First organized in 1912, its members were settled in colonies around oases in an effort to break down tribal loyalties and force the Bedouin to abandon their nomadic way of life. They also embraced the arch-traditionalist Islamic principles of Muḥammad ibn ʽAbd al-Wahhāb. From 1919 they won many victories in Arabia and Iraq, with conquests including Mecca and Medina. By 1926 the Ikhwān were becoming uncontrollable, attacking Ibn Saʽūd for innovations such as telephones and automobiles. They staged a bloody revolt, which was not put down until 1930, and then only with British help. Members who had remained loyal were eventually absorbed into the National Guard of Saudi Arabia.

* * *

▪ Saudi Arabian military-religious organization

      (Arabic: Brethren), in Arabia, members of a religious and military brotherhood that figured prominently in the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under Ibn Saʿūd (1912–30); in modern Saudi Arabia they constitute the National Guard.

      Ibn Saʿūd began organizing the Ikhwān in 1912 with hopes of making them a reliable and stable source of an elite army corps. In order to break their traditional tribal allegiances and feuds, the Ikhwān were settled in colonies known as hijrahs. These settlements, established around desert oases to promote agricultural reclamation of the land, further forced the Bedouin to abandon their nomadic way of life. The hijrahs, whose populations ranged from 10 to 10,000, offered tribesmen living quarters, mosques, schools, agricultural equipment and instruction, and arms and ammunition. Most important, religious teachers were brought in to instruct the Bedouin in the fundamentalist precepts of Islām taught by the religious reformer Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb in the 19th century. As a result the Ikhwān became archtraditionalists. By 1918 they were ready to enter Ibn Saʿūd's elite army.

      In 1919 the Ikhwān began a campaign against the Hāshimid kingdom of the Hejaz on the northwestern coast of Arabia; they defeated King Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī at Turabah (1919), then conducted border raids against his sons ʿAbd Allāh of Transjordan and Fayṣal (Fayṣal I) of Iraq (1921–22). In 1924, when Ḥusayn was proclaimed caliph in Mecca, the Ikhwān labelled the act heretical and accused Ḥusayn of obstructing their performance of the pilgrimage to Mecca. They then moved against Transjordan, Iraq, and the Hejaz simultaneously, besieged aṭ-Ṭāʾif (Ṭāʾif, Al-) outside Mecca, and massacred several hundred of its inhabitants. Mecca fell to the Ikhwān, and, with the subsequent surrenders (1925) of Jiddah and Medina, they won all of the Hejaz for Ibn Saʿūd. The Ikhwān were also instrumental in securing the provinces of Asir, just south of the Hejaz on the coast (1920), and Ḥāʾil, in the north of the peninsula, along the borders of Transjordan and Iraq (1921).

      By 1926 the Ikhwān were becoming uncontrollable. They attacked Ibn Saʿūd for introducing such innovations as telephones, automobiles, and the telegraph and for sending his son to a country of unbelievers (Egypt). Despite Ibn Saʿūd's attempts to mollify the Ikhwān by submitting their accusations to the religious scholars (ʿulamāʾ), they provoked an international incident by destroying an Iraqi force that had violated a neutral zone established by Great Britain and Ibn Saʿūd between Iraq and Arabia (1927–28); the British bombed Najd in retaliation.

      A congress convened by Ibn Saʿūd in October 1928 deposed Ibn Ḥumayd, ad-Dawīsh, and Ibn Ḥithlayn, the leaders of the revolt. A massacre of Najd merchants by Ibn Ḥumayd in 1929, however, forced Ibn Saʿūd to confront the rebellious Ikhwān militarily, and, in a major battle fought in March on the plain of as-Sabalah (near al-Arṭāwīyah), Ibn Ḥumayd was captured and ad-Dawīsh seriously wounded. Then in May 1929 Ibn Ḥithlayn was murdered. In retribution the Ikhwān killed his murderer, Fahd, the son of one of Ibn Saʿūd's governors, and commandeered the road between Ibn Saʿūd's capital, Riyadh, and the Persian Gulf. The rebels suffered a setback in August at the hands of ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn Musāʿid; their leader, ʿUzayyiz, ad-Dawīsh's son, and hundreds of his soldiers were either killed in battle on the edge of an-Nafūd desert or died of thirst in the desert. Shortly afterward, an important Ikhwān faction defected, and Ibn Saʿūd was able to surround the rebels and force them to surrender to the British in Kuwait in January 1930. The Ikhwān leaders, ad-Dawīsh and Ibn Ḥithlayn's cousin Nāyif, were subsequently imprisoned in Riyadh.

      Not all of the Ikhwān had revolted. Those that had remained loyal to Ibn Saʿūd stayed on the hijrahs, continuing to receive government support, and were still an influential religious force. They were eventually absorbed into the Saudi Arabian National Guard.

* * *